While clearing the forests: The social-ecological memory of trees in the Anthropocene.

The Anthropocene concept raises awareness of human-induced planetary changes but is criticized for being 'too global'. We examined the social-ecological memory that emerges from people-tree relationships in South American temperate territories, Chile. We integrated dendrochronology (analysis of tree rings of 35 memorial trees; 17 species) with dendrography (participant observation complemented with semi-structured and go-along interviews with 14 interviewees; six women, eight men). We found that assemblages of people-tree relationships reflect marked historical changes in the territory, associated with the historical clearing of forests, which may be imprinted in both tree growth rings and in the social meanings and practices associated with memorial trees. In devastated territories, practices of tree care emphasize interconnectedness, multispecies collaborations, and the blurring of boundaries between humans and other-than-humans. We discuss some of the interdisciplinary and relational insights of our study, which may prove valuable for future research, political agendas, and educational programs in South America and beyond.

The Action Scales Model: A conceptual tool to identify key points for action within complex adaptive systems.

BACKGROUND: Systems thinking is integral to working effectively within complex systems, such as those which drive the current population levels of overweight and obesity. It is increasingly recognised that a systems approach - which corrals public, private, voluntary and community sector organisations to make their actions and efforts coherent - is necessary to address the complex drivers of obesity. Identifying, implementing and evaluating actions within complex adaptive systems is challenging, and may differ from previous approaches used in public health. METHODS: Within this conceptual article, we present the Action Scales Model (ASM). The ASM is a simple tool to help policymakers, practitioners and evaluators to conceptualise, identify and appraise actions within complex adaptive systems. We developed this model using our collective expertise and experience in working with local government authority stakeholders on the Public Health England Whole Systems Obesity programme. It aligns with, and expands upon, previous models such as the Intervention Level Framework, the Iceberg Model and Donella Meadows' 12 places to intervene within a system. RESULTS: The ASM describes four levels (synonymous with leverage points) to intervene within a system, with deeper levels providing greater potential for changing how the system functions. Levels include events, structures, goals and beliefs. We also present how the ASM can be used to support practice and policy, and finish by highlighting its utility as an evaluative aid. DISCUSSION: This practical tool was designed to support those working at the front line of systems change efforts, and while we use the population prevalence of obesity as an outcome of a complex adaptive system, the ASM and the associated principles can be applied to other issues. We hope that the ASM encourages people to think differently about the systems that they work within and to identify new and potentially more impactful opportunities to leverage change.

Applying a complex adaptive systems approach to the evaluation of a school-based intervention for intimate partner violence prevention in Mexico.

Despite calls for evaluation practice to take a complex systems approach, there are few examples of how to incorporate complexity into real-life evaluations. This article presents the case for using a complex systems approach to evaluate a school-based intimate partner violence-prevention intervention. We conducted a post hoc analysis of qualitative evaluation data to examine the intervention as a potential system disruptor. We analysed data in relation to complexity concepts particularly relevant to schools: 'diverse and dynamic agents', 'interaction', 'unpredictability', 'emergence' and 'context dependency'. The data-two focus groups with facilitators and 33 repeat interviews with 14-17-year-old students-came from an evaluation of a comprehensive sexuality education intervention in Mexico City, which serves as a case study for this analysis. The findings demonstrate an application of complex adaptive systems concepts to qualitative evaluation data. We provide examples of how this approach can shed light on the ways in which interpersonal interactions, group dynamics, the core messages of the course and context influenced the implementation and outcomes of this intervention. This gender-transformative intervention appeared to disrupt pervasive gender norms and reshape beliefs about how to engage in relationships. An intervention comprises multiple dynamic and interacting elements, all of which are unlikely to be consistent across implementation settings. Applying complexity concepts to our analysis added value by helping reframe implementation-related data to focus on how the 'social' aspects of complexity influenced the intervention. Without examining both individual and group processes, evaluations may miss key insights about how the intervention generates change, for whom, and how it interacts with its context. A social complex adaptive systems approach is well-suited to the evaluation of gender-transformative interventions and can help identify how such interventions disrupt the complex social systems in which they are implemented to address intractable societal problems.

Chile Crece Contigo: Implementation, results, and scaling-up lessons.

BACKGROUND: Chile Crece Contigo (ChCC) is defined as a comprehensive, intersectoral, and multicomponent policy that aims to help all children reach their full potential for development, regardless of their socio-economic status. METHODS: This case study was developed on the basis of grey literature review and key informants' interviews. RESULTS: ChCC behaves as a complex adaptive system that combines universal and targeted benefits for the more vulnerable starting since gestation and until the children are 4 years old. Three key ministries are involved in ChCC management: health, education, and social development. Studies show adequate programme implementation and positive effects of ChCC on child development. In addition, it was found that the more families use ChCC benefits and the longer the subsystem has been operating in the commune, the greater the positive effects. CONCLUSIONS: Strong political support based on principles of equity and child rights combined with strong evidence and funding commitment from government has been central to emergence, scaling up, and sustainability of ChCC. Further sustainability of ChCC will rely on firmly establishing a well-trained and compensated cadre of early child development professionals and paraprofessionals as well as an improved management and evaluation decentralized system.

Scaling up Integrated Early Childhood Development programs: lessons from four countries.

BACKGROUND: There is still limited knowledge regarding the translation of early child development (ECD) knowledge into effective policies and large-scale programmes. A variety of frameworks that outline the key steps in scaling up exist, but we argue that taking a complex adaptive systems (CAS) approach assists in understanding the complex, dynamic processes that result in programmes being taken to scale. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study is to examine the process of scaling up four major country-level ECD programmes through the application of a CAS framework. METHODS: Nine key informants with a deep knowledge of how each ECD programme was established and brought to scale were interviewed via Skype or phone by using open-ended interviews. The interviews were tape recorded and then transcribed verbatim for subsequent coding by using CAS domains. The coding and integration of the results to identify unique and common CAS scaling up features across the case studies involved an iterative process of reaching consensus. RESULTS: The scaling up of all four programmes behaved as a CAS including as follows: (i) positive feedback loops (five themes) and negative feedback loops (two themes); (ii) scale-free networks (two themes); (iii) phase transitions (four themes); (iv) path dependence (two themes); and (v) emergent behaviour (six themes). Five additional themes were identified for sustainability, which was repeatedly mentioned as an important consideration when deciding how to scale up programmes. CONCLUSIONS: CAS analysis is likely to improve our understanding of how effective ECD programmes become scaled up. Prospective CAS implementation research is needed to continue advancing the knowledge in the field.

Understanding the dynamics of the Seguro Popular de Salud policy implementation in Mexico from a complex adaptive systems perspective.

BACKGROUND: In 2003, Mexico's Seguro Popular de Salud (SPS), was launched as an innovative financial mechanism implemented to channel new funds to provide health insurance to 50 million Mexicans and to reduce systemic financial inequities. The objective of this article is to understand the complexity and dynamics that contributed to the adaptation of the policy in the implementation stage, how these changes occurred, and why, from a complex and adaptive systems perspective. METHODS: A complex adaptive systems (CAS) framework was used to carry out a secondary analysis of data obtained from four SPS's implementation evaluations. We first identified key actors, their roles, incentives and power, and their responses to the policy and guidelines. We then developed a causal loop diagram to disentangle the feedback dynamics associated with the modifications of the policy implementation which we then analyzed using a CAS perspective. RESULTS: Implementation variations were identified in seven core design features during the first 10 years of implementation period, and in each case, the SPS's central coordination introduced modifications in response to the reactions of the different actors. We identified several CAS phenomena associated with these changes including phase transitions, network emergence, resistance to change, history dependence, and feedback loops. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings generate valuable lessons to policy implementation processes, especially those involving a monetary component, where the emergence of coping mechanisms and other CAS phenomena inevitably lead to modifications of policies and their interpretation by those who implement them. These include the difficulty of implementing strategies that aim to pool funds through solidarity among beneficiaries where the rich support the poor when there are no incentives for the rich to do so. Also, how resistance to change and history dependence can pose significant challenges to implementing changes, where the local actors use their significant power to oppose or modify these changes.

A evolução do comportamento cultural humano: apontamentos sobre darwinismo e complexidade / The evolution of human cultural behavior: notes on Darwinism and complexity

Resumo Foram analisadas três escolas que constituem o eixo dos estudos da evolução do comportamento humano dentro do paradigma da evolução por seleção natural: a ecologia comportamental humana, a psicologia evolutiva e a herança dual. O panorama darwinista foi identificado por meio dessas três correntes. Dessa análise foram identificadas lacunas teóricas que parecem reduzir a capacidade explicativa desse conjunto de escolas quanto à diversidade do comportamento evolutivo humano. Entre os pontos de fragilidade estão questões ligadas ao conceito de sucesso reprodutivo, tipos de adaptação e alvos de seleção. Como saída para essas questões, propõe-se o uso de uma abordagem interdisciplinar, tendo como matriz os sistemas adaptativos complexos.

Abstract The article analyzes three schools that can be understood as central in studies of the evolution of human behavior within the paradigm of evolution by natural selection: human behavioral ecology (HBE), evolutionary psychology, and dual inheritance. These three streams of thought are used to depict the Darwinist landscape and pinpoint its strong suits and limitations. Theoretical gaps were identified that seem to reduce these schools’ ability to account for the diversity of human evolutionary behavior. Their weak points include issues related to the concept of reproductive success, types of adaptation, and targets of selection. An interdisciplinary approach is proposed as the solution to this dilemma, where complex adaptive systems would serve as a source.

Caos, complejidad y cardiología / Chaos, complexity and cardiology

La ciencia es una disciplina en constante evolución. La medicina moderna está basada en la ciencia. El paradigma médico vigente es lineal y reduccionista. Existe una nueva teoría general avalada por cálculos computacionales avanzados, la teoría del caos y la complejidad. Esta nueva visión probablemente modificará la práctica de la medicina. La cardiología fue una puerta de entrada de la complejidad, al campo de la medicina. El caos y los fractales son fenómenos frecuentes en la fisiología cardiovascular. Además, los análisis computacionales de los ritmos cardiacos han permitido conocer mejor enfermedades complejas, muy frecuentes en la práctica clínica, que no eran entendibles mediante acercamientos lineales y reduccionistas. Tal es el caso de las disautonomías, incluyendo los síndromes de intolerancia ortostática, el síndrome X cardiaco y la fibromialgia, entre otros. Desde la perspectiva de la complejidad, se desprende una diferente actitud diagnóstica y terapéutica, el holismo científico.

Science is an ever-changing discipline. Modern medical knowledge is based on science. Current medical paradigm is both linear and reductionist. There is a new general theory validated by computer’s calculations named chaos and complexity theory. This new paradigm will probably have an impact on medical practice. Cardiovascular physiology may display fractal and/ or chaotic behavior. Computerized heart rhythm analyses enhanced our understanding of complex diseases otherwise not explainable by current linear-reductionist paradigms. Cases in point are diverse dysautonomia including orthostatic intolerance, cardiac X syndrome and fibromyalgia. Derived from this, new knowledge is a different diagnostic and therapeutic stance: scientific holism.

Mecánica estadíttica, neodarwinismo y la prefiguración de las ciencias de la complejidad / Statistical Mechanics, Neo-Darwinism and the Prefiguration of the Science of Complexity

En este artículo pretendo mostrar que: 1. Para los fundadores de la genética de poblaciones, Fisher y Wright, existía una relación muy estrecha entre la física y la biología. 2. El deseo de matematizar la genética de poblaciones buscaba darle al evolucionismo el estatus de -ciencia dura-, al mismo nivel que la física de Boltzmann y Maxwell. 3. Este esfuerzo estuvo orientado a mostrar que la evolución por selección natural no se opone a las leyes termodinámicas que rigen la evolución de los sistemas físicos. 4. La metáfora que paradójicamente presenta a los seres vivos como -demonios de Maxwell- anticipó aspectos de las teorías evolutivas modernas que recurren a las ciencias de la información y la termodinámica de sistemas complejos adaptativos desarrolladas por Prigogine en 1970 y Kauffman en 1993. 5. Para finalizar presento un contraste entre Darwin y Einstein que permite esclarecer mejor los puentes y conexiones bidireccionales que se establecen entre la biología y la física.

This paper aims to illustrate: 1. that for the founders of population genetics, Fisher and Wright, there was a close relationship between physics and biology. 2. The mathematics of population genetics aimed at placing evolutionary theory as a -hard science- at the same level as Boltzmann and Maxwell’s physics. 3. This effort showed that the concept of evolution by natural selection does not contradict the laws of thermodynamics that rule the evolution of physical systems. 4. The metaphor that paradoxically represents living beings as -Maxwellian demons- anticipated some aspects of the present day evolutionary theories that recur to the thermodynamic of complex adaptive systems as developed by Prigogine, 1970, and Kauffman, 1993. 5. To conclude, I contrast Darwin and Einstein in order to clarify, how can be understood today, the bridges and bidirectional connections between physics and biology.

La educación médica frente a los retos de la sociedad del conocimiento / Medical Education Challenged by the Learning Society

El presente trabajo cuestiona los paradigmas dominantes en la educación médica y establece la necesidad de participar en la investigación del aprendizaje in situ, para incorporar a la educación médica como elemento indispensable del proceso de gestión del conocimiento, analiza el sistema de salud considerado como sistema complejo adaptativo y concluye en la necesidad de construir nuevos paradigmas educativos.

This paper analyzes the limitations of dominant paradigms in education and identifies the necessity of research-situated learning in real environments and how medical education must be involved with knowledge management in real, complex, adaptive systems, and concludes with the need for constructing novel educative paradigms with regard to new educational paradigms.