Radicalization Processes and Transitional Phases in Female and Male Detainees Residing in Dutch Terrorism Wings.

BACKGROUND: Radicalization, violent extremism, and terrorism are risks to societal security. Although research on terrorism-related behaviors is increasing, thorough empirical studies are rare. METHODS: This study investigates radicalization processes and transitions in a matched sample of female and male terrorist suspects and convicts (N = 26) residing in Dutch penitentiary terrorism wings. RESULTS: Results show that both men and women often experienced discrimination. A subgroup of women grew up in a stressful family environment and lacked emotional support from their family, whereas the other women did not experience such circumstances. The majority of the study sample was susceptible to connecting with radicalized friends or family members. Interestingly, factors that initially led to radicalization (e.g., a utopian image of the Islamic State) could later turn out to be factors associated with abandoning extremism. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, differences in radicalization processes and transitional phases between women and men emerged. Men more often had police contact prior to a terrorism-related offense. Making an effort to right old mistakes seemed important in the radicalization processes of men, whereas women had a stronger desire for emotional support and were more driven by experienced trauma and feelings of loneliness. This study provides input for gender-specific prevention and disengagement interventions.

Why Is It so Difficult to Investigate Violent Radicalization?

Imagine that you are a researcher interested in disentangling the underlying mechanisms that motivate certain individuals to self-sacrifice for a group or an ideology. Now, visualize that you are one of a few privileged that have the possibility of interviewing people who have been involved in some of the most dramatic terrorist attacks in history. What should you do? Most investigations focused on terrorism do not include empirical data and just a handful of fortunate have made face-to-face interviews with these individuals. Therefore, we might conclude that most experts in the field have not directly met the challenge of experiencing studying violent radicalization in person. As members of a research team who have talked with individuals under risk of radicalization, current, and former terrorists, our main goal with this manuscript is to synopsize a series of ten potential barriers that those interested in the subject might find when making fieldwork, and alternatives to solve them. If all the efforts made by investigators could save the life of a potential victim, prevent an individual from becoming radicalized, or make him/her decide to abandon the violence associated with terrorism, all our work will have been worthwhile.

Why Is It so Difficult to Investigate Violent Radicalization?

Imagine that you are a researcher interested in disentangling the underlying mechanisms that motivate certain individuals to self-sacrifice for a group or an ideology. Now, visualize that you are one of a few privileged that have the possibility of interviewing people who have been involved in some of the most dramatic terrorist attacks in history. What should you do? Most investigations focused on terrorism do not include empirical data and just a handful of fortunate have made face-to-face interviews with these individuals. Therefore, we might conclude that most experts in the field have not directly met the challenge of experiencing studying violent radicalization in person. As members of a research team who have talked with individuals under risk of radicalization, current, and former terrorists, our main goal with this manuscript is to synopsize a series of ten potential barriers that those interested in the subject might find when making fieldwork, and alternatives to solve them. If all the efforts made by investigators could save the life of a potential victim, prevent an individual from becoming radicalized, or make him/her decide to abandon the violence associated with terrorism, all our work will have been worthwhile. (AU)

Understanding Changes in Violent Extremist Attitudes During the Transition to Early Adulthood.

Objectives: The current study seeks to explain changes in support for violent extremism during the transition to early adulthood. This period during the life course could increase uncertainty and vulnerability to radicalization, or alternatively lead to maturation, prosocial bonds, and consequently less support for violent extremism. In the absence of population-based longitudinal data on violent extremist attitudes, we know very little about how and why attitudes change during this period. Method: Data came from an ongoing longitudinal cohort study in Zürich, Switzerland (n = 910). First, we assessed the variation in violent extremist attitudes between ages 17 and 20 using the Reliable Change Index. Second, we used hybrid regression techniques to investigate to what extent theoretically relevant factors can explain between- and within-individual differences in violent extremist attitudes. Results: Our results show that violent extremist attitudes are largely stable or declining between late adolescence and early adulthood, and that within-individual changes in low self-control, conflict coping skills, and peer disapproval of violence can in part explain these changes. Conclusions: For young people in Zürich, the transition to early adulthood was characterized by increases in psychosocial maturity, more prosocial peers, and less deviant behavior, which in turn was associated with lower support for violent extremism. Existing research on effective interventions for criminal desistance and disengagement from gangs may therefore be fruitful avenues for developing programs aimed at reducing support for violent extremism and fostering deradicalization. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10940-021-09522-9.

Desistance, Disengagement, and Deradicalization: A Cross-Field Comparison.

This article provides a critical comparison of the present knowledge base on desistance from crime and current writings on disengagement and deradicalization from violent extremism. Underlying the comparison is the fundamental premise that while violent extremism is a particular and perhaps egregious form of crime, it is a form of crime nonetheless, meaning that violent extremist offenders are not beyond the remits of the desistance framework. As of yet, however, there have been few attempts to connect these two research domains in a systematic way. Against this background, the present article intends to trace the outlines of both bodies of knowledge so as to determine the degree of overlap between these two kindred literatures. The results of this integrative literature indicate that studies on criminal desistance and violent extremist disengagement echo the same basic mechanisms of change, but also that differences in context affect how these mechanisms take shape. In highlighting the implications for theory, the findings of this review illustrate, above all, how a closer association between these two fields of study enriches our understanding of both.

British terrorism preemption: Subjectivity and disjuncture in Channel "de-radicalization" interventions.

This article examines Channel "de-radicalization" interventions, which take place on individuals suspected of having the potential to commit terrorist crimes. Situated within critical security studies, the article explores the British Prevent programme by utilizing primary interviews with hard-to-reach Channel mentors and senior Prevent officials. Following the work of anticipatory risk-governance scholarship, this research illuminates the three processes of risk-visibilization (how an individual becomes sufficiently "seen" as harbouring risk that they are offered Channel mentorship), risk-calculation (how practitioners negotiate supposed riskiness), and risk-knowing (how practitioners "know" risks they observe). It demonstrates how the practice of preemptive counter-terrorism is subsumed inherently by-even relies upon-subjectivity and human prejudice, and fundamental disagreements between practitioners. Through substantial empirical contribution on the phenomenon of Channel interventions, the discussion highlights ultimately that the algorithmic rationale of preemptive risk-spotting normalizes the suspicion of banal and everyday behaviors, precisely because such interventions are ultimately deployed through worst-case imaginations.

Exit programmes for female jihadists: A proposal for conducting realistic evaluation of the Dutch approach.

Europe has seen an increase of women joining or sympathizing with the terrorist organization ISIS. These women are often considered victims and passive agents, but their threat should not be underestimated. Effective counter-measures are essential, especially now the so-called caliphate is in decline and many females want to return home. Exit programmes to deradicalize, disengage, reintegrate or rehabilitate are often part of a broader programme to prevent and counter violent extremism (CVE). Little is known about the effectiveness of such exit programmes, in particular in relation to female violent extremism. Drawing on municipal exit programmes in the Netherlands as a case study, the article researches how realistic evaluation can be used to measure the effectiveness of exit programmes. It also shows that the realistic evaluation method is beneficial for further theory development on the phenomenon of female violent extremism.

L'Europe connaît une augmentation du nombre de femmes qui rejoignent ou sympathisent avec l'organisation terroriste État islamique. Ces femmes, souvent considérées comme des victimes et des agents passifs, représentent pourtant une menace qu'il ne faudrait pas sous-estimer. Des mesures efficaces de lutte antiterroriste sont indispensables, en particulier maintenant que le « califat ¼ autoproclamé est sur le déclin et que beaucoup de femmes parties pour le djihad cherchent à revenir. Des programmes de sortie de la radicalisation destinés à déradicaliser, désengager, réintégrer ou réhabiliter font souvent partie d'un programme plus vaste de prévention et de lutte contre l'extrémisme violent. On sait peu de choses sur l'efficacité de ces programmes de sortie, en particulier pour ce qui concerne l'extrémisme violent des femmes. À partir de l'exemple des programmes municipaux de sortie de la radicalisation mis en place aux Pays-Bas, nous cherchons dans cet article à déterminer comment l'évaluation réaliste peut être utilisée pour mesurer leur efficacité.

Europa ha visto un aumento de mujeres que se unen o simpatizan con la organización terrorista ISIS. Estas mujeres son consideradas a menudo como víctimas y agentes pasivos, pero su amenaza no debe subestimarse. Las contramedidas efectivas son esenciales, especialmente ahora que el denominado Califato está en declive y muchas mujeres desean regresar a sus hogares. Los programas de salida del radicalismo para desradicalizar, desvincularse, reintegrarse o rehabilitarse a menudo forman parte de un programa más amplio para prevenir y contrarrestar el extremismo violento. Se sabe poco sobre la efectividad de tales programas de salida del radicalismo, en particular en relación con el extremismo violento femenino. Basándose en los programas municipales de salida del radicalismo en los Países Bajos como estudio de caso, el artículo investiga cómo se puede usar la evaluación realista para medir la efectividad de los programas de salida del radicalismo.