Thickness Determination and Control in Protein-Based Biomaterial Thin Films.

Controlling the thickness and uniformity of biomaterial films is crucial for their application in various fields including sensing and bioelectronics. In this work, we investigated film assemblies of an engineered repeat protein─specifically, the consensus tetratricopeptide repeat (CTPR) protein ─a system with unique robustness and tunability. We propose the use of microreflectance spectroscopy and apparent color inspection for the quick assessment of the thickness and uniformity of protein-based biomaterial films deposited on oxidized silicon substrates. Initially, we characterized the thickness of large, uniform, spin-coated protein films and compared the values obtained from microreflectance spectroscopy with those obtained from other typical methods, such as ellipsometry and atomic force microscopy. The excellent agreement between the results obtained from the different techniques validates the effectiveness of microreflectance as a fast, noninvasive, and affordable technique for determining the thickness of biomaterial films. Subsequently, we applied microreflectance spectroscopy to determine the thickness of drop-casted CTPR-based films prepared from small protein solution volumes, which present a smaller surface area and are less uniform compared to spin-coated samples. Additionally, we demonstrate the utility of apparent color inspection as a tool for assessing film uniformity. Finally, based on these results, we provide a calibration of film thickness as a function of the protein length and concentration for both spin-coated and drop-casted films, serving as a guide for the preparation of CTPR films with a specific thickness. Our results demonstrate the remarkable reproducibility of the CTPR film assembly, enabling the simple preparation of biomaterial films with precise thickness.

[Study on the pressure on ceramic veneers during cementation]. / Izuchenie velichiny davleniya na keramicheskie viniry vo vremya ikh tsementirovaniya.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study is measuring the magnitude and determining the method of finger pressure exerted by doctors on ceramic veneers during their fixation. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A simulation model was designed in order to measure the volume of finger pressure. Veneers were produced for 2 central incisors. Doctors alternately placed veneers on the model and applied pressure on them for 20 seconds simulating the clinical stage of cementing. The operator recorded the maximum readings of the scales and entered the result on the research protocol. In addition, it was recorded which finger the doctor exerts on the veneer during its cementing to ensure a tight fit: thumb or index finger. RESULTS: The values obtained during cementation of 54% doctors ranged up to 1 kg, 27% of doctors from 1 to 2 kg and only 19% more than 2 kg. 80% of doctors applied the main pressure on the veneer using their thumb, while the pressure force was 1.4 kg. For those doctors who pressed the veneer to the tooth with their index finger, the impact value was 0.8 kg. CONCLUSION: The finger pressure on the veneer during cementation applied by dentists varies, the average pressure on the veneers was about 1.5 kg. The amount of pressure on cement during laboratory tests of cements for fixing veneers differs from clinical values many times. The development of a veneers fixation protocol, taking into account the conducted research, will ensure a reliable and accurate fit of the veneer at the stage of its cementing.

Effect of Cu Film Thickness on Cu Bonding Quality and Bonding Mechanism.

In the hybrid bonding process, the final stage of chemical mechanical polishing plays a critical role. It is essential to ensure that the copper surface is recessed slightly from the oxide surface. However, this recess can lead to the occurrence of interfacial voids between the bonded copper interfaces. To examine the effects of copper film thickness on bonding quality and bonding mechanisms in this study, artificial voids were intentionally introduced at the bonded interfaces at temperatures of 250 °C and 300 °C. The results revealed that as the thickness of the copper film increases, there is an increase in the bonding fraction and a decrease in the void fraction. The variations in void height with different copper film thicknesses were influenced by the bonding mechanism and bonding fraction.

Comparative Analysis of Interfacial Adaptation and Depth Penetration of Recent HiFlow versus Regular Bioceramic Sealers in Conjunction with BC Gutta-Percha Points Using Two Different Obturation Techniques-A Preliminary Report of an Ex Vivo Study.

This study aimed to assess the adaptability and penetration depth capacity of recent bioceramic systems, including regular EndoSequence (BC) versus HiFlow (BCH) sealers in the presence of BC points. A total of 54 single-rooted teeth were instrumented and obturated with either the cold or warm compaction technique (n = 9), using either BC, BCH, or AH Plus (AHP) combined with BC points. The adaptation, film thickness, and gaps/voids were evaluated by scanning electron microscopy. The sealer/dentin interface was evaluated by Raman spectroscopy, and depth penetration was evaluated by a confocal laser scanning microscope. According to the normality test, the data were statistically analyzed by ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U tests at p < 0.05. BCH sealer showed the significantly thinnest film with the greatest flow (p > 0.001), with further improvement when subjected to the warm compaction technique. Moreover, it exhibited close adaptation with deep penetration into radicular dentin, forming a tag-like structure. The Raman spectra also indicated close contact with the dentin surface. The use of BC sealer with BC points exhibited homogenous, single-unit obturation, either with a cold or warm technique. Furthermore, the use of the warm compaction technique with BCH sealer achieved a gap-free interface associated with tag-like structures, which exhibit the monoblock phenomenon.

Atomic-Scale Structural Properties in NiCo2O4/CuFe2O4 Bilayer Heterostructures on (001)-MgAl2O4 Substrate Regulated by Film Thickness.

Changing film thickness to manipulate microstructural properties has been considered as a potential method in practical application. Here, we report that atomic-scale structural properties are regulated by film thickness in an NiCO2O4(NCO)/CuFe2O4(CFO) bilayer heterostructure prepared on (001)-MgAl2O4 (MAO) substrate by means of aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). The misfit dislocations at the NCO/CFO interface and antiphase boundaries (APBs) bound to dislocations within the films are both found in NCO (40 nm)/CFO (40 nm)/MAO heterostructures, contributing to the relaxation of mismatch lattice strain. In addition, the non-overlapping a/4[101]-APB is found and the structural transformation of this kind of APB is resolved at the atomic scale. In contrast, only the interfacial dislocations form at the interface without the formation of APBs within the films in NCO (10 nm)/CFO (40 nm)/MAO heterostructures. Our results provide evidence that the formation of microstructural defects can be regulated by changing film thickness to tune the magnetic properties of epitaxial bilayer spinel oxide films.

Physicochemical properties of AH plus bioceramic sealer, Bio-C Sealer, and ADseal root canal sealer.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to evaluate the physicochemical properties of two newly introduced premixed calcium silicate-based root canal sealers (AH Plus Bioceramic Sealer and Bio-C Sealer) compared to a resin-based root canal sealer (ADseal root canal sealer). METHODS: Solubility, pH analysis, calcium ion release, and film thickness of each sealer were evaluated following ISO guidelines. The data were examined using the two-way ANOVA test. Furthermore, X-ray diffraction (XRD) examination was performed to investigate the crystalline phase of each type of sealer. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis was done for the chemical elemental analysis of each sealer. RESULTS: The least film thickness, highest alkalinity, and highest calcium ion release were all displayed by AH Plus Bioceramic Sealer. High solubility, high alkalinity, intermediate calcium ion release, and intermediate film thickness were all displayed by Bio-C Sealer. While ADseal root canal sealer displayed the greatest film thickness, least solubility, alkalinity, and calcium ion release. CONCLUSIONS: Both AH Plus Bioceramic Sealer and Bio-C Sealer represented adequate properties to be considered a good sealer that could be used as a potential alternative to resin-based root canal sealers.

Processability Considerations for Next-Generation Organic Photovoltaic Materials.

The evolution of organic semiconductors for organic photovoltaics (OPVs) has resulted in unforeseen outcomes. This has provided substitute choices of photoactive layer materials, which effectively convert sunlight into electricity. Recently developed OPV materials have narrowed down the gaps in efficiency, stability, and cost in devices. Records now show power conversion efficiency in single-junction devices closing to 20%. Despite this, there is still a gap between the currently developed OPV materials and those that meet the requirements of practical applications, especially the solution processability issue widely concerned in the field of OPVs. Based on the general rule that structure determines properties, methodologies to enhance the processability of OPV materials are reviewed and explored from the perspective of material design and views on the further development of processable OPV materials are presented. Considering the current dilemma that the existing evaluation indicators cannot reflect the industrial processability of OPV materials, a more complete set of key performance indicators are proposed for their processability considerations. The purpose of this perspective is to raise awareness of the boundary conditions that exist in industrial OPV manufacturing and to provide guidance for academic research that aspires to contribute to technological advancements.

Study on the fluidity of foamed alkali-activated slag cementitious material (AASCM).

This study aims to investigate the evolution patterns of fluidity and rheological properties of AASCM under varying dosages of foaming agent and particle sizes of filling aggregate. The flow characteristics of AASCM are significantly affected by the filling aggregate's size and the foaming agent's dosage. Specifically, an increase in filling aggregate size (D(4,3) ϵ [26 µm, 69 µm]) enhances the fluidity of foamed AASCM, while an increase in foaming agent dosage reduces fluidity. These observed variations can be attributed to the presence of particle voids, the specific surface area of the aggregate, as well as the quantity and spatial distribution of bubbles within the slurry. A bubble-particle packing model is established, and by calibrating the simulation error coefficient to 1.1, the study investigates the evolution of water film thickness (WFT) in foamed AASCM with slurry expansion degree. It is observed that bubbles in the slurry affect the fluidity by altering the overall compactness and specific surface area of the foamed slurry, subsequently modifying the WFT.

Evolution Mechanism of Sputtered Film Uniformity with the Erosion Groove Size: Integrated Simulation and Experiment.

In this work, Cu thin films were experimentally fabricated at different target-substrate distances by 2-inch and 4-inch circular planar magnetron targets. Meanwhile, the sputtering deposition of Cu thin films was investigated via an integrated multiscale simulation, where the magnetron sputtering discharge was modeled using the Monte Carlo (MC) method, and the sputtered particle transport was simulated using a coupled Monte Carlo (MC) and molecular dynamics (MD) method. Experimental results indicated that, as the target-substrate distance increased from 30 to 120 mm, the film thickness distribution of the 2-inch target sputtering changed from a bell-shaped curve to a line-shaped curve, while that of the 4-inch target sputtering varied from a saddle-shaped curve to a line-shaped curve. The simulation results were accordant with the experimental results. The simulation results revealed that, at a target-substrate distance of 30 mm, the sputtering particle flow from the 2-inch target overlapped strongly near the substrate center, leading to a bell-shaped film thickness distribution, while the increased diameter of the erosion groove on the 4-inch target reduced the superposition effect of the sputtering particle flow near the substrate center, resulting in a saddle-shaped film thickness distribution. In addition, when the target-substrate distance ranged from 30 to 120 mm, the film thickness uniformity of 4-inch target sputtering was superior to that of 2-inch target sputtering, and the underlying mechanism was discussed in detail.

Thickness effect of 2D PdSe2film on performance of PdSe2/Si heterostructure photodetectors.

Two-dimensional (2D) PdSe2film has the characteristics of adjustable bandgap, high carrier mobility, and high stability. Photodetector (PD) based on 2D PdSe2exhibits wide spectral self-driving features, demonstrating enormous potential in the field of optical detection. Here, we design and fabricate PdSe2/Si heterojunction PDs with various thicknesses of the PdSe2films from 10 to 35 nm. Due to the enhancement of light absorption capacity and built-in electric field of heterojunction, the photodetector with thicker PdSe2film can generate more photo-generated carriers and effectively separate them to form a large photocurrent, thus showing more excellent photodetection performance. The responsivity and specific detectivity of the PdSe2/Si PDs with 10 nm, 20 nm, and 35 nm PdSe2films are 2.12 A W-1and 6.72 × 109Jones, 6.17 A W-1and 1.95 × 1010Jones, and 8.02 A W-1and 2.54 × 1010Jones, respectively (808 nm illumination). The PD with 35 nm PdSe2film exhibits better performance than the other two PDs, with the rise/fall times of 15.8µs/138.9µs atf= 1 kHz and the cut-off frequency of 8.6 kHz. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the properties of PdSe2/Si PD array have excellent uniformity and stability at room temperature and shows potential for image sensing in the UV-vis-NIR wavelength range.

Utilizing an Oxidized Biopolymer to Enhance the Bonding of Glass Ionomer Luting Cement Particles for Improved Physical and Mechanical Properties.

This study aimed to determine the reinforcing effect of two weight ratios of Gum Arabic (GA) natural biopolymer, i.e., 0.5% and 1.0% in the powdered composition of glass ionomer luting cement. GA powder was oxidized and GA-reinforced GIC in 0.5 and 1.0 wt.% formulations were prepared in rectangular bars using two commercially available GIC luting materials (Medicem and Ketac Cem Radiopaque). The control groups of both materials were prepared as such. The effect of reinforcement was evaluated in terms of microhardness, flexural strength (FS), fracture toughness (FT), and tensile strength (TS). The internal porosity and water contact angle formation on the study samples were also evaluated. Film thickness was measured to gauge the effect of micron-sized GA powder in GA-GIC composite. Paired sample t-tests were conducted to analyze data for statistical significance (p < 0.05). The experimental groups of both materials containing 0.5 wt.% GA-GIC significantly improved FS, FT, and TS compared to their respective control groups. However, the microhardness significantly decreased in experimental groups of both cements compared to their respective control groups. The addition of GA powder did not cause a significant increase in film thickness and the water contact angle of both 0.5 and 1.0 wt.% GA-GIC formulations were less than 90o. Interestingly, the internal porosity of 0.5 wt.% GA-GIC formulations in both materials were observed less compared to their respective control groups. The significantly higher mechanical properties and low porosity in 0.5 wt.% GA-GIC formulations compared to their respective control group indicate that reinforcing GA powder with 0.5 wt.% in GIC might be promising in enhancing the mechanical properties of GIC luting materials.

Aging rate, environmental risk and production efficiency of the low-density polyethylene (LDPE) films with contrasting thickness in irrigated region.

Physical thickness of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) films might determine the release rate of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) & structural integrity and affect production efficiency. However, this critical issue is still unclear and little reported. Aging effects were evaluated in LDPE films with the thickness of 0.006, 0.008, 0.010 and 0.015 mm in a maize field of irrigation region. The Scanning electron microscope (SEM) results showed that the proportion of damaged area (Dam) to total area of LDPE films was massively lowered with increasing thickness after aging. The highest and lowest Dam was 32.2% and 3.5% in 0.006 and 0.015 mm films respectively. Also, the variations in peak intensity of asymmetric & symmetrical stretching vibrations (ASVI & SSVI) were detected using Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FTIR), indicating that the declines in peak intensity tended to be slower with thickness. Interestingly, the declines in physical integrity were tightly associated with increasing exhalation rate of PAEs. Average releasing rate of PAEs was 38.2%, 31.4%, 31.5% and 19.7% in LDPE films from 0.006 to 0.015 mm respectively. Critically, thicker film mulching can lead to greater soil water storage at plough layer (SWS-PL) and better thermal status, accordingly harvesting higher economic benefit. Therefore, LDPE film thickening may be a solution to reduce environmental risk but improve production efficiency in arid region.

Effects of Film Thickness on the Residual Stress of Vanadium Dioxide Thin Films Grown by Magnetron Sputtering.

Vanadium dioxide (VO2) thin films of different thicknesses were prepared by regulating the deposition time (2, 2.5, 3, and 3.5 h). The impact of deposition time on the microstructure, surface morphology, and cross-section morphology was investigated. The results showed that the grain size increased with the film thickness. Meanwhile, the influence of film thickness on the residual stress was evaluated by X-ray diffraction. The phenomenon of "compressive-to-tensile stress transition" was illustrated as the thickness increased. The change of dominant mechanism for residual stress was used for explaining this situation. First, the composition of residual stress indicates that growth stress play a key role. Then, the effect of "atomic shot peening" can be used to explain the compressive stress. Lastly, the increased grain size, lower grain boundary density, and "tight effect" in the progress of film growth cause tensile stress.

Measurement of Nanoscale Film Thickness Using Neutron Depth Profiling Technique.

Determination of geometric parameters for thin film materials has always been a critical concern in scientific research. This paper proposes a novel approach for high-resolution and nondestructive measurement of nanoscale film thickness. In this study, the neutron depth profiling (NDP) technique was employed to accurately measure the thickness of nanoscale Cu films, achieving an impressive resolution of up to 1.78 nm/keV. The measurement results exhibited a deviation from the actual thickness of less than 1%, highlighting the accuracy of the proposed method. Additionally, simulations were conducted on graphene samples to demonstrate the applicability of NDP in measuring the thickness of multilayer graphene films. These simulations provide a theoretical foundation for subsequent experimental measurements, further enhancing the validity and practicality of the proposed technique.

Ultrasonic Interferometric Procedure for Quantifying the Bone-Implant Interface.

The loosening of an artificial joint is a frequent and critical complication in orthopedics and trauma surgery. Due to a lack of accuracy, conventional diagnostic methods such as projection radiography cannot reliably diagnose loosening in its early stages or detect whether it is associated with the formation of a biofilm at the bone-implant interface. In this work, we present a non-invasive ultrasound-based interferometric measurement procedure for quantifying the thickness of the layer between bone and prosthesis as a correlate to loosening. In principle, it also allows for the material characterization of the interface. A well-known analytical model for the superposition of sound waves reflected in a three-layer system was combined with a new method in data processing to be suitable for medical application at the bone-implant interface. By non-linear fitting of the theoretical prediction of the model to the actual shape of the reflected sound waves in the frequency domain, the thickness of the interlayer can be determined and predictions about its physical properties are possible. With respect to determining the layer's thickness, the presented approach was successfully applied to idealized test systems and a bone-implant system in the range of approx. 200 µm to 2 mm. After further optimization and adaptation, as well as further experimental tests, the procedure offers great potential to significantly improve the diagnosis of prosthesis loosening at an early stage and may also be applicable to detecting the formation of a biofilm.

Lubrication mechanisms of dispersed carbon microspheres in boundary through hydrodynamic lubrication regimes.

HYPOTHESIS: Carbon microspheres have been shown to reduce friction and surface wear at relatively low speeds and high applied loads (i.e., within the boundary lubrication regime). We hypothesize that in dilute colloidal lubricating systems there is an interplay between the size of the carbon microspheres and the lubrication gap size, which determines the dominant lubricating mechanism of the system. EXPERIMENTS: A 60 wt% aqueous glycerol solution was used as the base lubricant and compared to various carbon particle-based lubricant formulations ranging in particle concentrations from 0.05 to 0.30 vol%. The tribological properties of the various lubricant formulations were tested on a pin-on-disk tribometer. A simplified Stribeck plot was produced to understand the changing mechanism of lubrication over a wide range of conditions. FINDINGS: The Stribeck curves show that the carbon microspheres assist lubrication by a rolling mechanism primarily in the boundary lubrication regime. A 0.20 vol% carbon-based lubricant formulation showed the best friction reduction compared to the base lubricant. Increasing speed increases the lubricating gap between the friction pair beyond the size of the particles, thereby nullifying the rolling mechanism of the particles. We introduce a modified specific film thickness parameter to determine the lubrication regime in a particle-lubricant system.

Mechanical and friction properties of agricultural plastic film during autumn harvest period of cotton in Xinjiang, China.

Agricultural plastic films have caused serious plastic pollution. There are many studies that consider mechanical recycling an appropriate system for the recovery of post-consumption agricultural mulch film. The recovery effect of plastic film depends on the mechanical properties, the level of dirtiness of the post-consumption film, and the recycling process itself. In this study, the mechanical properties of four types of polyethylene plastic films with a thickness of 8, 10, 12, and 10 µm, weather-resistant, commonly used in Xinjiang cotton fields, were tested. As well as the friction coefficient between the film and soil, the cotton stalk, boll shell, and leaf with different moisture contents were measured. Then, the self-propelled straw chopping and residual film recycling combined machine collected the four types of mulch films. The results showed that the longitudinal mechanical properties of the plastic film were greater than the transversal ones, with the exception of the nominal tensile strain at break, and the tensile characteristics of the mulching film covered with soil were greater than those without soil. The dynamic or static friction coefficient between the film and the contact material had a linear relationship with the moisture content of the material. During the recycling operation, the better the mechanical properties of the plastic film, the higher the pick-up rate of the mulch film. The maximum longitudinal tensile force of 12-µm plastic film was 3.42 N, and the nominal tensile strain at break was 303.09%. The pick-up rate reached more than 93% when the 12-µm plastic film was recovered in autumn, which effectively reduced the residue of plastic film coverage in the current year. Moreover, the more soil that was present on the much film, the greater the soil content of the recycled film roll, and the stalk content also increased, but the change was small. The research provides a reference for the mechanical and the friction features of agricultural plastic film in Xinjiang, and provides a theoretical basis for the formulation of standards for film thickness and mechanical properties, as well as the design and optimization of a residual film collecting machine in the cotton field.

The Theory of the Surface Wettability Angle in the Formation of an Oil Film in Internal Combustion Piston Engines.

In internal combustion piston engines, the formation of an oil film is completely different from that seen in industrial machines. The molecular adhesion force at the interface between the surface coating of engine parts and the lubricating oil determines the load-carrying capacity and the ability to form a lubricated film. The geometry of the lubricating wedge between the surfaces of the piston rings and the cylinder wall is created by the thickness of the oil film and the height of the ring's coverage with lubricating oil. This condition is affected by many of the parameters that characterize the engine's operation and the physical and chemical parameters of the coatings used for the cooperating pairs. For lubricant particles that reach energies that are higher than the potential energy barrier regarding adhesive attraction at the interface, slippage occurs. Therefore, the value of the contact angle of the liquid on the surface of the coating depends on the value of the intermolecular force of attraction. According to the current author, there is a strong relationship between the contact angle and the lubrication effect. The paper shows that the surface potential energy barrier is a function of the contact angle and contact angle hysteresis (CAH). The innovation of the current work consists in examining the contact angle and CAH under the conditions of thin layers of lubricating oil, in cooperation with hydrophilic and hydrophobic coatings. The thickness of the lubricant film was measured under various speed and load conditions, using optical interferometry. The study shows that CAH is a better interfacial parameter for correlation with the effect of hydrodynamic lubrication. This paper presents the mathematical relationships relating to a piston engine, various coatings, and lubricants.

Effect of Treatment with Topical Azithromycin or Oral Doxycycline on Tear Film Thickness in Patients with Meibomian Gland Dysfunction: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Purpose: This prospective, randomized, observer-masked, parallel-group study aimed to compare the effect of topical azithromycin and oral doxycycline on tear film thickness (TFT) and signs and symptoms of ocular surface disease (OSD) in patients with meibomian gland dysfunction (MGD). Methods: Patients were randomized to either receive topical azithromycin or oral doxycycline. After a baseline visit, three follow-up visits at intervals of 2 weeks were scheduled. Main outcome of the study was change in TFT as measured with ultrahigh resolution optical coherence tomography. Results: Twenty patients were included in the analysis. TFT significantly increased in both groups (P = 0.028 vs. baseline) with no difference between the groups (P = 0.096). As secondary outcomes, ocular surface disease index (OSDI) score and composite signs of OSD significantly decreased in both groups (P = 0.023 for OSDI and P = 0.016 for OSD signs vs. baseline). While eye-related adverse events (AEs) occurred more frequently in the azithromycin group, systemic AEs were more common in the doxycycline group. Conclusions: Both treatments improved signs and symptoms of OSD in patients with MGD with no difference between the groups. Due to the higher frequency of systemic side effects of doxycycline, azithromycin eye drops seem to be an alternative with comparable efficacy. Clinical Trial Registration number: NCT03162497.

Covalent Triazine Framework Films through In-Situ Growth for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution.

Photocatalytic hydrogen evolution through water splitting offers a promising way to convert solar energy into chemical energy. Covalent triazine frameworks (CTFs) are ideal photocatalysts owing to its exceptional in-plane π-conjugation, high chemical stability, and sturdy framework structure. However, CTF-based photocatalysts are typically in powder form, which presents challenges in catalyst recycling and scale-up applications. To overcome this limitation, we present a strategy for producing CTF films with excellent hydrogen evolution rate that are more suitable for large-scale water splitting due to their ease of separation and recyclability. We developed a simple and robust technique for producing CTF films on glass substrates via in-situ growth polycondensation, with thicknesses adjustable from 800 nm to 27 µm. These CTF films exhibit exceptional photocatalytic activity, with the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) performance reaching as high as 77.8 mmol h-1 g-1 and 213.3 mmol m-2 h-1 with co-catalyst Pt under visible light (≥420 nm). Additionally, they demonstrate good stability and recyclability, further highlighting their potential in green energy conversion and photocatalytic devices. Overall, our work presents a promising approach for producing CTF films suitable for a range of applications and paves the way for further developments in this field.