MelastomaTRAITs 1.0: A database of functional traits in Melastomataceae, a large pantropical angiosperm family.

The recent availability of open-access repositories of functional traits has revolutionized trait-based approaches in ecology and evolution. Nevertheless, the underrepresentation of tropical regions and lineages remains a pervasive bias in plant functional trait databases, which constrains large-scale assessments of plant ecology, evolution, and biogeography. Here, we present MelastomaTRAITs 1.0, a comprehensive and updatable database of functional traits for the pantropical Melastomataceae, the ninth-largest angiosperm family with 177 genera and more than 5800 species. Melastomataceae encompass species with a wide diversity of growth forms (herbs, shrubs, trees, epiphytes, and woody climbers), habitats (including tropical forests, savannas, grasslands, and wetlands from sea level to montane areas above the treeline), ecological strategies (from pioneer, edge-adapted and invasive species to shade-tolerant understory species), geographic distribution (from microendemic to continental-wide distribution), reproductive, pollination, and seed dispersal systems. MelastomaTRAITs builds on 581 references, such as taxonomic monographs, ecological research, and unpublished data, and includes four whole-plant traits, six leaf traits, 11 flower traits, 18 fruit traits, and 27 seed traits for 2520 species distributed in 144 genera across all 21 tribes. Most data come from the Neotropics where the family is most species-rich. Miconieae (the largest tribe) contains the highest number of trait records (49.6%) and species (41.1%) records. The trait types with the most information in the database were whole-plant traits, flowers, and leaf traits. With the breadth of functional traits recorded, our database helps to fill a gap in information for tropical plants and will significantly improve our capacity for large-scale trait-based syntheses across levels of organization, plant-animal interactions, regeneration ecology, and thereby support conservation and restoration programs. There are no copyright restrictions on the dataset; please cite this data paper when reusing the data.

Evaluation of the Pollination Efficiency of Apple Trees by Osmia excavata Alfken (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae).

The mason bee Osmia excavata Alfken is an apple pollinating insect widely distributed in northern China, in order to effectively utilize the mason bee and improve the pollination rate of apples, there is a need to evaluate the pollination efficiency of the bees. This study evaluated the pollination efficiency of the mason bee on apple orchards in Jinan and Yantai, Shandong Province, China. The study compared natural pollination areas and pollination areas with different release densities of O. excavata in terms of the effects of bee density, timing of pollination, and distance effects on fruit set rate, fruit shape index, fruit shape skewness, fruit soluble solids content, and fruit firmness. The optimal release density of bees was 6000 cocoons per hectare, resulting in the highest fruit setting rate of apple lateral flowers. From 07:00 to 14:00 was the best time for bee pollination. The optimal distance of hives from apple trees for pollination by O. excavata was 60 m. Single fruit weight was significantly higher and fruit unsymmetrical rate, partial slope and hardness were all significantly lower at the release densities of 6000 or 12000 cocoons per hectare compared with 3000 cocoons per hectare or under natural pollination conditions. There was no significant difference in the content of soluble solids under different release densities. Thus, the radius of 60 m from the hive was the effective pollination range and 6000 cocoons per hectare of mason bees could ensure the fruit quality of apple.

Metabolite Profiling of Pleurotus ostreatus Grown on Sisal Agro-Industrial Waste Supplemented with Cocoa Almond Tegument and Wheat Bran.

Pleurotus ostreatus is an edible fungus with high nutritional value that uses industrial and agricultural lignocellulosic residues as substrates for growth and reproduction. Understanding their growth metabolic dynamics on agro-industrial wastes would help to develop economically viable and eco-friendly biotechnological strategies for food production. Thus, we used UHPLC/MS/MS and GNPS as an innovative approach to investigate the chemical composition of two strains of P. ostreatus, coded as BH (Black Hirataki) and WH (White Hirataki), grown on sisal waste mixture (SW) supplemented with 20 % cocoa almond tegument (CAT) or 20 % of wheat bran (WB). Metabolite dereplication allowed the identification of 53 metabolites, which included glycerophospholipids, fatty acids, monoacylglycerols, steroids, carbohydrates, amino acids, and flavonoids. This is the first report of the identification of these compounds in P. ostreatus, except for the steroid ergosterol. Most of the metabolites described in this work possess potential biological activities, which support the nutraceutical properties of P. ostreatus. Thus, the results of this study provide essential leads to the understanding of white-rot fungi chemical plasticity aiming at developing alternative biotechnologies strategies for waste recycling.

Complementary roles of hummingbirds and bees: Pollen pickup, pollen deposition, and fruit production in the distylous Palicourea rigida.

PREMISE: Distyly is a condition in which individual plants in a population express two floral morphs, L- and S-morph, characterized by reciprocal placements of anthers and stigmas between morphs. The function of distyly requires that pollinators collect pollen from L- and S-morphs on different parts along their bodies to then deposit it on the stigmas of the opposite morph, known as legitimate pollination. However, different pollinator groups might differ in the ability to transfer pollen legitimately. METHODS: We investigated patterns of pollen pickup along the body of different functional groups (hummingbirds and bees) using preserved specimens to analyze their role in the reproductive success of Palicourea rigida. We measured pollen deposition on the body of pollinators, on stigmas, and fruit production after a single visit. RESULTS: Pollen from L- and S-flowers appeared segregated on different body parts of the hummingbird and bee used in the study. S-pollen was deposited primarily on the proximal regions (near the head), and L-pollen was placed in the distal regions (tip of the proboscis and bill). Hummingbirds were more efficient at legitimate pollination than bees, particularly to S-stigmas. However, fruit formation after single visits by both pollinators was similar. CONCLUSIONS: The morphology of distylous flowers allows the segregated placement of L-and S-pollen on different body parts of the animal specimens used, facilitating the promotion of legitimate pollen transfer, an observation consistent between the two functional pollinator groups. Also, the results show that full fruit set requires more than one visit.

Phenological data of a Neotropical savanna community.

Savanna plant species commonly have different adaptive mechanisms in response to fire. In this biome, phenology is a functional trait characterizing the responses of plant communities to fire. The database presented here provides phenological data on 95 angiosperm species, in plots with natural vegetation and/or in burned plots. We used 10 plots (5 × 5 m) installed in "campo cerrado" physiognomy, in the Santa Bárbara Ecological Station, located in the municipality of Águas de Santa Bárbara, São Paulo state, southeastern Brazil. Half of these plots was burned in Aug/2013 and the other half was kept intact as a control. For one year (Sep/2013 to Aug/2014), we collected monthly data on the presence of sprouting (new branches or new unexpanded leaves), flowers (flower buds and flowers at anthesis) and fruits (immature and mature) in all angiosperm individuals present in the plots. This phenological data can support other studies on these sampled species, involving different aspects of their ecology, and on the conservation of this type of vegetation and management plans in relation to the prescription of fire.

Phenology of the endangered palm Ceroxylon quindiuense (Arecaceae) along an altitudinal gradient in Colombia / Fenología de la palma en peligro Ceroxylon quindiuense (Arecaceae) a lo largo de un gradiente altitudinal en Colombia

Abstract Introduction: Understanding the phenology of plant populations is vital for their conservation and management. We studied the vegetative and reproductive phenology of the endangered palm Ceroxylon quindiuense along an altitudinal gradient in the Central Cordillera of Colombia. Objective: We describe the leaf production rate, and flowering and fruiting cycles, and calculate food offer for the fauna, as a tool for the proper management of the palm. Methods: At each sampling site (2 400, 2 600, 2 800, 3 000 m.a.s.l.), we marked 40 adult individuals (20 pistillate, 20 staminate), which we followed bimonthly for 24 months. We studied leaf production by counting fallen leaves. We followed flower and fruit production through observations with binoculars and photographs. Results: Each adult individual produced, on average, one leaf every 69 days. Although isolated individuals flowered throughout the year, most palms flowered synchronously at each elevation in October 2016-August 2017 and in August 2018-February 2019 and had ripe fruits 7-13 months later. Flowering started at 2 600 m, followed by 2 800 and 3 000 m. Palms at 2 400 m, the lower limit of the palm stands in the area, showed a singular behavior, with scarce flower and fruit production, some individuals that changed sex, and a higher proportion of pistillate palms. Each palm produced 1-11 (x̄ = 5.3, SD = 2.2) inflorescences and 1-10 (x̄ = 5.3, SD = 2.2) infructescences. The average number of fruits per infructescence was 4 465 (SD = 1 488). With an estimated population of adult palms between 256 000 and 600 000 and an overall ratio of pistillate: staminate individuals 1:1 or 1:2, total fruit production in the area during each fruiting period is estimated as 2.0-7.1 billion fruits. Conclusions: The huge number of flowers and fruits and their gradual availability along the altitudinal gradient have a major impact on the spatial and temporal distribution of food offer for fauna associated with the palm.

Resumen Introducción: Comprender la fenología de las poblaciones de plantas es vital para su conservación y manejo. Estudiamos la fenología vegetativa y reproductiva de la palma amenazada Ceroxylon quindiuense a lo largo de un gradiente altitudinal en la Cordillera Central de Colombia. Objetivo: Describimos la tasa de producción de hojas, los ciclos de floración y fructificación, y calculamos la oferta alimentaria para la fauna, como una herramienta para el adecuado manejo de la palma. Métodos: En cada sitio de muestreo (2 400, 2 600, 2 800, 3 000 m.s.n.m.), marcamos 40 individuos adultos (20 pistilados, 20 estaminados), que seguimos bimestralmente durante 24 meses. Estudiamos la producción de hojas contando las caídas al suelo. Seguimos la producción de flores y frutos a través de observaciones con binoculares y fotografías. Resultados: Cada individuo adulto produjo, en promedio, una hoja cada 69 días. Aunque los individuos aislados florecieron durante todo el año, la mayoría de las palmas florecieron sincrónicamente en cada elevación entre octubre 2016 y agosto 2017 y de agosto 2018 a febrero 2019 y tuvieron frutos maduros entre 7-13 meses después. La floración comenzó a los 2 600 m, seguida de los 2 800 y los 3 000 m. Las palmas a 2 400 m, límite inferior de los palmares de la zona, mostraron un comportamiento singular, con escasa producción de flores y frutos, varios individuos que cambiaron de sexo y una mayor proporción de palmas pistiladas. Cada palma produjo 1-11 (x̄ = 5.3, SD = 2.2) inflorescencias y 1-10 (x̄ = 5.3, SD = 2.2) infrutescencias. El número promedio de frutos por infrutescencia fue de 4 465. Con una población estimada de palmas adultas entre 256 000 y 600 000 y una proporción total de individuos pistilados: estaminados 1:1 o 1:2, la producción total de frutos en el área durante cada período de fructificación se estima en 2.0-7.1 mil millones de frutos. Conclusiones: La gran cantidad de flores y frutos y su progresiva disponibilidad a lo largo del gradiente tienen un impacto importante en la distribución espacial y temporal de la oferta de alimento para la fauna asociada a la palma.

The physiology and genetics behind fruiting efficiency: a promising spike trait to improve wheat yield potential.

Fruiting efficiency (FE, grains per g of spike dry weight at anthesis) was proposed as a promising spike trait to improve wheat yield potential, based on its functional relationship with grain number determination and the evidence of trait variability in elite germplasm. During the last few years, we have witnessed great advances in the understanding of the physiological and genetic basis of this trait. The present review summarizes the recent heritability estimations and the genetic gains obtained when fruiting efficiency was measured at maturity (FEm, grains per g of chaff) and used as selection criterion. In addition, we propose spike ideotypes for contrasting fruiting efficiencies based on the fertile floret efficiency (FFE, fertile florets per g of spike dry weight at anthesis) and grain set (grains per fertile floret), together with other spike fertility-related traits. We also review novel genes and quantitative trait loci available for using marker-assisted selection for fruiting efficiency and other spike fertility traits. The possible trade-off between FE and grain weight and the genes reported to alter this relation are also considered. Finally, we discuss the benefits and future steps towards the use of fruiting efficiency as a selection criterion in breeding programs.

Pollinator Efficacy in Yellow Passion Fruit (Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa Deg., Passifloraceae).

A pollinator's efficacy is the result obtained from a single visit by a species and is often used to measure the importance of different species of floral visitors as pollinators. Therefore, this study aimed to measure the efficacy of fruit and seed set in Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa Deg. (Passifloraceae) by manual cross-pollination, natural pollination and by Xylocopa (Neoxylocopa) frontalis (Olivier 1789), performed through a single and two visits, to evaluate if there is occurrence of pollen limitation and pollinators' limitation in the studied crop fields. Four different treatments were performed: (1) manual cross-pollination (n = 37 flowers); (2) natural pollination (n = 52 flowers); (3) pollination by a single visit of X. frontalis (n = 41 flowers); and (4) pollination by two visits of X. frontalis (n = 31 flowers). We verified that fruit set occurred in all the treatments performed. Fruit set rate by manual cross-pollination was significantly higher than that obtained under natural conditions indicating the occurrence of pollen limitation and pollinators' limitation under natural pollination. Regarding the number of seeds, analysis of variance (ANOVA) did not indicate a significant difference between the mean seed set for the different types of pollination evaluated. The management of occupied nests, the introduction of trap-nests, and the conservation of native vegetation in areas close to the yellow passion fruit crops can increase pollinators' population. The greater richness and abundance of pollinators are essential to promote a greater number of fruit and seed set in the yellow passion fruit crops.

New physaloid fruit-fossil species from early Eocene South America.

PREMISE: Solanaceae is a scientifically and economically important angiosperm family with a minimal fossil record and an intriguing early evolutionary history. Here, we report a newly discovered fossil lantern fruit with a suite of features characteristic of Physalideae within Solanaceae. The fossil comes from the early Eocene Laguna del Hunco site (ca. 52 Ma) in Chubut, Argentina, which previously yielded the only other physaloid fruit fossil, Physalis infinemundi. METHODS: The fruit morphology and calyx venation pattern of the new fossil were compared with P. infinemundi and extant species of Solanaceae. RESULTS: Physalis hunickenii sp. nov. is clearly distinct from P. infinemundi in its fruiting calyx with wider primary veins, longer and thinner lobes, and especially in its venation pattern with high density, transverse tertiary veins; these features support its placement in a new species. In comparison with extant physaloid genera, the calyx venation pattern and other diagnostic traits reinforce placement of the new fossil, like P. infinemundi, within the tribe Physalideae of Solanaceae. CONCLUSIONS: Both species of fossil nightshades from Laguna del Hunco represent crown-group Solanaceae but are older than all prior age estimates of the family. Although at least 20 transoceanic dispersals have been proposed as the driver of range expansion of Solanaceae, the Patagonian fossils push back the diversification of the family to Gondwanan times. Thus, overland dispersal across Gondwana is now a likely scenario for at least some biogeographic patterns, in light of the ancient trans-Antarctic land connections between South America and Australia.

Haplotype block analysis of an Argentinean hexaploid wheat collection and GWAS for yield components and adaptation.

BACKGROUND: Increasing wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production is required to feed a growing human population. In order to accomplish this task a deeper understanding of the genetic structure of cultivated wheats and the detection of genomic regions significantly associated with the regulation of important agronomic traits are necessary steps. To better understand the genetic basis and relationships of adaptation and yield related traits, we used a collection of 102 Argentinean hexaploid wheat cultivars genotyped with the 35k SNPs array, grown from two to six years in three different locations. Based on SNPs data and gene-related molecular markers, we performed a haplotype block characterization of the germplasm and a genome-wide association study (GWAS). RESULTS: The genetic structure of the collection revealed four subpopulations, reflecting the origin of the germplasm used by the main breeding programs in Argentina. The haplotype block characterization showed 1268 blocks of different sizes spread along the genome, including highly conserved regions like the 1BS chromosome arm where the 1BL/1RS wheat/rye translocation is located. Based on GWAS we identified ninety-seven chromosome regions associated with heading date, plant height, thousand grain weight, grain number per spike and fruiting efficiency at harvest (FEh). In particular FEh stands out as a promising trait to raise yield potential in Argentinean wheats; we detected fifteen haplotypes/markers associated with increased FEh values, eleven of which showed significant effects in all three evaluated locations. In the case of adaptation, the Ppd-D1 gene is consolidated as the main determinant of the life cycle of Argentinean wheat cultivars. CONCLUSION: This work reveals the genetic structure of the Argentinean hexaploid wheat germplasm using a wide set of molecular markers anchored to the Ref Seq v1.0. Additionally GWAS detects chromosomal regions (haplotypes) associated with important yield and adaptation components that will allow improvement of these traits through marker-assisted selection.

Molecular marker analysis of spike fertility index and related traits in a bread wheat recombinant inbred line population / Análisis de marcadores moleculares para el índice de fertilidad de espiga y caracteres asociados en una población de líneas endocriadas recombinantes de trigo pan

Spike fertility index (SF) has been well established as an ecophysiological trait related to grain number per unit area and a promising selection target in wheat breeding programs. Scarce information on the molecular basis of SF is available thus far. In this study, a preliminary molecular marker analysis was carried out in a RIL population derived from the cross between two Argentinean cultivars with contrasting SF to identify candidate genomic regions associated with SF. Twenty-four microsatellites and two functional markers that had been found to co-segregate with SF in a bulked-segregant analysis of the F3 generation of the population were analyzed. Phenotypic data were collected from three field experiments carried out during 2013, 2014 and 2015 growing seasons at Balcarce, Argentina. Two genomic regions associated with SF in chromosomes 5BS and 7AS were detected, which merit further investigation.

El índice de fertilidad de espiga (FE) ha sido propuesto como un carácter ecofisiológico asociado con el número de granos por unidad de área y como criterio de selección prometedor para los programas de mejoramiento de trigo. Sin embargo, la información sobre las bases moleculares de la FE aún es escasa. En este estudio, se realizó un análisis preliminar de marcadores moleculares en una población RIL derivada del cruce entre dos cultivares argentinos con FE contrastante con el objetivo de identificar regiones genómicas candidatas asociadas con el carácter. Se analizaron 24 microsatélites y dos marcadores funcionales que se había encontrado que se co-segregaban con la FE en un análisis de segregantes en "bulk" en la generación F3 de la población. Se recopilaron datos fenotípicos de tres experimentos de campo llevados a cabo durante las temporadas de cultivo 2013, 2014 y 2015 en Balcarce, Argentina. Se detectaron dos regiones genómicas asociadas con la FE en los cromosomas 5BS y 7AS, que mostraron ser estables a través de los años de evaluación. Este trabajo aporta información novedosa acerca de las bases moleculares de la FE, las cuales deberán ser estudiadas con mayor profundidad.

Density-dependent seed predation in Attalea geraensis Barb. Rodr. (Arecaceae) caused by bruchid beetles in the Brazilian Cerrado / Predação dependente da densidade em sementes de Attalea geraensis Barb. Rodr. (Arecaceae), causada por besouros no Cerrado brasileiro

Abstract Palms are an important component of Neotropical communities as they are often diverse and abundant. In some areas, palms occur in high density and act as limiting factor in tree recruitment by limiting tree seedling and sapling abundance. In this study, I evaluated the intensity of seed mortality caused by insects in Attalea geraensis, in a large area of preserved Cerrado (Serra do Cabral, MG, Brazil) during wet season when both A. geraensis fruits and bruchid beetles were abundant. I collected a total of 63 infructescences which had from 3 fruits and 7 seeds to 82 fruits and 251 seeds. Endocarps had from 1 to 6 seeds. Seed mortality per infructescence due to beetles (Pachymerus cardo) was intense, and increases positively and disproportionally according to seed number per infructescence. Besides that, average proportions of seeds preyed upon by insects were consistently high (> 0.83), irrespective of seed number per endocarp. Positive density-dependent seed mortality caused by specialized natural enemies has been assumed to promote species rarity, an important feature of species coexistence in Neotropical forests. Then, the intense seed mortality documented in this study suggests that seed predators may contribute to the richness and diversity of plant species in the Cerrado, the richest and most endangered savanna in the world.

Resumo Devido à abundância e diversidade, as palmeiras são um componente importante das comunidades neotropicais. Em algumas áreas as palmeiras ocorrem em elevada densidade, tornando-se um fator limitante ao recrutamento de árvores, por restringir a abundância de plântulas e árvores jovens. Neste estudo, avaliei a intensidade de mortalidade das sementes de Attalea geraensis , causada por insetos, em uma grande área preservada de Cerrado (Serra do Cabral, MG, Brasil), durante a estação chuvosa, quando frutos de A. geraensis e besouros predadores de sementes eram abundantes. Coletei um total de 63 infrutescências que tinham de 3 frutos e 7 sementes a 82 frutos e 251 sementes. Os endocarpos tinham de 1 a 6 sementes. Nas infrutescências a mortalidade das sementes causada por besouros (Pachymerus cardo) foi intensa e aumentou positiva e desproporcionalmente conforme o número de sementes por infrutescência. Além disso, independentemente do número de sementes por endocarpo, as proporções médias de sementes predadas por endocarpo foram consistentemente altas (> 0,83). A mortalidade densidade dependente positiva de sementes causada por inimigos naturais especializados é assumida como uma das principais causas da raridade das espécies vegetais, um fator importante para coexistência de espécies nas florestas neotropicais. Portanto, a intensa mortalidade de sementes documentada neste estudo sugere que predadores de sementes podem contribuir para a riqueza e diversidade de espécies de plantas no Cerrado, a savana mais rica e ameaçada do mundo.

Proposing the solar-wind energy flux hypothesis as a driver of inter-annual variation in tropical tree reproductive effort.

PREMISE: The El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) affects tropical environmental conditions, potentially altering ecosystem function as El Niño events interact with longer-term climate change. Anomalously warm equatorial Pacific Ocean temperatures affect rainfall and temperature throughout the tropics and coincide with altered leaf flush phenology and increased fruit production in wet tropical forests; however, the understanding of mechanisms underlying this pattern is limited. There is evidence that increases in tropical tree reproduction anticipate El Niño onset, motivating the continued search for a global driver of tropical angiosperm reproduction. We present the solar-wind energy flux hypothesis: that physical energy influx to the Earth's upper atmosphere and magnetosphere, generated by a positive anomaly in the solar wind preceding El Niño development, cues tropical trees to increase resource allocation to reproduction. METHODS: We test this hypothesis using 19 years of data from Luquillo, Puerto Rico, correlating them with measures of solar-wind energy. RESULTS: From 1994 to 2013, the solar-wind energy flux into Earth's magnetosphere (Ein ) was more strongly correlated with the number of species fruiting and flowering than the Niño 3.4 climate index, despite Niño 3.4 being previously identified as a driver of interannual increases in reproduction. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in the global magnetosphere and thermosphere conditions from increased solar-wind energy affect global atmospheric pressure and circulation patterns, principally by weakening the Walker circulation. We discuss the idea that these changes cue interannual increases in tropical tree reproduction and act through an unidentified mechanism that anticipates and synchronizes the reproductive output of the tropical trees with El Niño.

Nor-guanacastepene pigments from the Chilean mushroom Cortinarius pyromyxa.

For the first time, the pigment composition of basidiocarps from the Chilean mushroom Cortinarius pyromyxa was studied under various aspects like phylogeny, chemistry and antibiotic activity. A molecular biological study supports the monotypic position of C. pyromyxa in subgenus Myxacium, genus Cortinarius. Four undescribed diterpenoids, named pyromyxones A-D, were isolated from fruiting bodies of C. pyromyxa. Their chemical structures were elucidated based on comprehensive one- and two-dimensional NMR spectroscopic analysis, ESI-HRMS measurements, as well as X-ray crystallography. In addition, the absolute configurations of pyromyxones A-D were established with the aid of JH,H, NOESY spectra and quantum chemical CD calculation. The pyromyxones A-D possess the undescribed nor-guanacastane skeleton. Tested pyromyxones A, B, and D exhibit only weak activity against gram-positive Bacillus subtilis and gram-negative Aliivibrio fischeri as well as the phytopathogenic fungi Botrytis cinerea, Septoria tritici and Phytophthora infestans.

Density-dependent seed predation in Attalea geraensis Barb. Rodr. (Arecaceae) caused by bruchid beetles in the Brazilian Cerrado / Predação dependente da densidade em sementes de Attalea geraensis Barb. Rodr. (Arecaceae), causada por besouros no Cerrado brasileiro

Palms are an important component of Neotropical communities as they are often diverse and abundant. In some areas, palms occur in high density and act as limiting factor in tree recruitment by limiting tree seedling and sapling abundance. In this study, I evaluated the intensity of seed mortality caused by insects in Attalea geraensis, in a large area of preserved Cerrado (Serra do Cabral, MG, Brazil) during wet season when both A. geraensis fruits and bruchid beetles were abundant. I collected a total of 63 infructescences which had from 3 fruits and 7 seeds to 82 fruits and 251 seeds. Endocarps had from 1 to 6 seeds. Seed mortality per infructescence due to beetles (Pachymerus cardo) was intense, and increases positively and disproportionally according to seed number per infructescence. Besides that, average proportions of seeds preyed upon by insects were consistently high (> 0.83), irrespective of seed number per endocarp. Positive density-dependent seed mortality caused by specialized natural enemies has been assumed to promote species rarity, an important feature of species coexistence in Neotropical forests. Then, the intense seed mortality documented in this study suggests that seed predators may contribute to the richness and diversity of plant species in the Cerrado, the richest and most endangered savanna in the world.(AU)

Devido à abundância e diversidade, as palmeiras são um componente importante das comunidades neotropicais. Em algumas áreas as palmeiras ocorrem em elevada densidade, tornando-se um fator limitante ao recrutamento de árvores, por restringir a abundância de plântulas e árvores jovens. Neste estudo, avaliei a intensidade de mortalidade das sementes de Attalea geraensis , causada por insetos, em uma grande área preservada de Cerrado (Serra do Cabral, MG, Brasil), durante a estação chuvosa, quando frutos de A. geraensis e besouros predadores de sementes eram abundantes. Coletei um total de 63 infrutescências que tinham de 3 frutos e 7 sementes a 82 frutos e 251 sementes. Os endocarpos tinham de 1 a 6 sementes. Nas infrutescências a mortalidade das sementes causada por besouros (Pachymerus cardo) foi intensa e aumentou positiva e desproporcionalmente conforme o número de sementes por infrutescência. Além disso, independentemente do número de sementes por endocarpo, as proporções médias de sementes predadas por endocarpo foram consistentemente altas (> 0,83). A mortalidade densidade dependente positiva de sementes causada por inimigos naturais especializados é assumida como uma das principais causas da raridade das espécies vegetais, um fator importante para coexistência de espécies nas florestas neotropicais. Portanto, a intensa mortalidade de sementes documentada neste estudo sugere que predadores de sementes podem contribuir para a riqueza e diversidade de espécies de plantas no Cerrado, a savana mais rica e ameaçada do mundo.(AU)

Effects of an accidental dry-season fire on the reproductive phenology of two Neotropical savanna shrubs / Efeitos de um incêndio acidental de estação seca sobre a fenologia reprodutiva de dois arbustos savânicos neotropicais

Abstract Fire is a recurrent disturbance in savanna vegetation and savanna species are adapted to it. Even so, fire may affect various aspects of plant ecology, including phenology. We studied the effects of a spatially heterogeneous fire on the reproductive phenology of two dominant woody plant species, Miconia albicans (Melastomataceae) and Schefflera vinosa (Araliaceae), in a savanna area in South-eastern Brazil. The study site was partially burnt by a dry-season accidental fire in August 2006, and we monitored the phenolology of 30 burnt and 30 unburnt individuals of each species between September 2007 and September 2008. We used restricted randomizations to assess phenological differences between the burnt and unburnt individuals. Fire had negative effects on the phenology of M. albicans, with a smaller production of reproductive structures in general and of floral buds, total fruits, and ripe fruits in burnt plants. All unburnt but only 16% of the burnt M. albicans plants produced ripe fruits during the study. Fire effects on S. vinosa were smaller, but there was a greater production of floral buds and fruits (but not ripe fruits) by burnt plants; approximately 90% of the individuals of S. vinosa produced ripe fruits during the study, regardless of having been burnt or not. The differences between the two species may be related to S. vinosa's faster growth and absence from the seed bank at the study site, whereas M. albicans grows more slowly and is dominant in the seed bank.

Resumo O fogo é uma perturbação recorrente em vegetação savânica e as espécies do cerrado são adaptadas a ele. Mesmo assim, o fogo pode afetar aspectos da ecologia vegetal, incluindo a fenologia. Nós estudamos os efeitos de um incêndio espacialmente heterogêneo sobre a fenologia reprodutiva de duas espécies lenhosas dominantes, Miconia albicans (Melastomataceae) e Schefflera vinosa (Araliaceae), em uma área de cerrado no Sudeste do Brasil. A área de estudo foi parcialmente queimada por um incêndio acidental na estação seca (agosto) de 2006. Nós acompanhamos a fenologia reprodutiva de 30 indivíduos queimados e 30 não-queimados de cada espécie, de setembro de 2007 a setembro de 2008, usando aleatorizações restritas para comparar os dois grupos. Em M. albicans, a produção de estruturas reprodutivas como um todo e de botões florais, frutos e frutos maduros foi maior em indivíduos queimados do que nos não-queimados. Todos os indivíduos não-queimados, mas apenas 16% dos queimados, produziram frutos maduros durante o estudo. Já em S. vinosa, a produção de botões florais e de frutos (mas não de frutos maduros) foi maior em indivíduos queimados; aproximadamente 90% dos indivíduos de S. vinosa produziram frutos maduros durante o estudo, independentemente de terem sido queimados ou não. As diferenças entre as duas espécies podem estar relacionadas com o fato de S. vinosa crescer mais rápido e estar ausente do banco de sementes, ao contrário de M. albicans, de crescimento mais lento e dominante no banco de sementes.

Caracterización del crecimiento miceliar de cepas nativas de Neolentinus ponderosus y N. lepideus en diferentes pH y degradación de madera de Pinus spp / Mycelial growth of native strains of Neolentinus ponderosus and N. lepideus at different pH and their Pinus spp. wood degradation

Neolentinus ponderosus y N. lepideus son dos especies de hongos saprobios que poseen uso alimenticio tradicional en comunidades de los departamentos de Huehuetenango y Totonicapán, Guatemala. La capacidad degradadora de ambas especies les confiere potencial para el estudio de la producción de cuerpos fructíferos a nivel de sustrato, por lo que en esta investigación se evaluó el crecimiento de una cepa nativa de N. ponderosus y una de N. lepideus en el medio de cultivo agar extracto de malta (EMA) a diferente pH y también se estudió la degradación de la madera de dos especies de pino (Pinus tecunumanii y P. ayacahuite) en cámaras de podredumbre durante 12 meses. El mayor diámetro de crecimiento miceliar de la cepa N. ponderosus se observó a pH 7.0, en tanto que para N. lepideus se obtuvo a pH 5.0 y 5.6. Las colonias de ambas cepas evidenciaron textura afelpada, borde regular a irregular, color blanco, con o sin pigmento difusible, olor frutal, hifas de 1.0-5.0 µm de diámetro, con clamidosporas y fíbulas. La madera de P. tecunumanii degradada por la cepa de N. ponderosus y la madera de P. ayacahuite por la cepa N. lepideus, presentaron porcentajes de pérdida de peso de 8.76 (±5.58) y 12.07 (±5.66), respectivamente y en ambos casos se alcanzó solamente el estadio temprano de degradación. Los resultados de este estudio sientan las bases para investigaciones posteriores en los que se evalúe el cultivo en troncos de ambas especies para la producción de cuerpos fructíferos con fines alimenticios y comerciales

Neolentinus ponderosus and N. lepideus are two saprophytic fungi species used traditionally in Huehuetenango and Totonicapán, Guatemala. The degradative capacity of both species confers them potential for fruiting bodies production. This study evaluated the mycelial growth of two native strains of N. ponderosus and N. lepideus in malt extract agar (EMA) at different pH and the degradation of wood from two pine species in rot chambers during 12 months. pH 7.0 was the most appropriate for the mycelial growth of N. ponderosus and for N. lepideus were 5.0 and 5.6. The colonies of both strains showed fruity odor, velvety texture, regular to irregular edge, white color, with or without diffusible pigment, hyphae with 1-5 µm width, chlamydospores and clamp connections. Wood from Pinus tecunumanii and P. ayacahuite exhibit weight-loss percentages between 8.76 ± 5.58 and 12.07 ± 5.66, with N. ponderosus 145.2003 and N. lepideus 90.2002, respectively. In both cases reached the early stage of brown-rot decay. These results could be useful for future research that evaluate the fruiting bodies production in logs for food and commercial purposes

Effect of irrigation at critical stages on the phenology of flowering and fruiting of the cactus Opuntia spp / Efeito da irrigação em estágios críticos sobre a fenologia de floração e frutificação do cacto Opuntia spp

Abstract This paper briefly reports some effects of irrigations at two critical periods on the phenology of three varieties of cactus pear cultivated in Agadir area: the spineless varieties 'Aissa' and 'Moussa' and the thorny one 'Achefri'. In the first year experiments (2010-2011) treatments of irrigation used were: (T1) 0 mm, (T2) 30 mm during flowering and 30 mm during fruit enlargement and (T3) 30 mm only during fruit enlargement. In the 2nd year experiments, irrigation treatments were: (T1) 0 mm, (T2) 60 mm during flowering and 60 mm during fruit enlargement and (T3) 60 mm only during fruit enlargement. Treatments of irrigation were applied between mid-April and mid-June in the 1st year experiments and in February and May in the 2nd year experiments. Results of the first year experiments showed that the emission of buds was higher in the thorny variety than in the spineless ones (more than 6 emitted buds/cladode vs less than 4.5 in the spineless varieties). In the second year, irrigation increased the emission of buds in the three varieties (more than 7 emitted buds/cladode for each T2 and T3 of all varieties vs not more than 5 for T1) and the duration of the flowering phase of these varieties. However, irrigation did not modify the proportions of fruits reaching commercial maturity during the early or the late period of maturation.

Resumo Este artigo relatou brevemente alguns efeitos das irrigações em dois períodos críticos na fenologia de três variedades de Opuntia cultivadas na área de Agadir: as variedades sem espinhos 'Aissa' e 'Moussa' e um espinhoso 'Achefri'. No primeiro ano (2010-2011) os seguintes tratamentos do experimento da irrigação foram usados: (T1) 0 milímetros, (T2) 30 milímetros durante a florescência e 30 milímetros durante a ampliação do fruto e (T3) 30 milímetros somente durante a ampliação do fruto. No segundo ano das experiências, os tratamentos da irrigação foram: (T1, 0 milímetros), (T2) 60 milímetros durante a florescência e 60 milímetros durante a ampliação do fruto e (T3) 60 milímetros somente durante a ampliação do fruto. Os tratamentos da irrigação foram aplicados entre a metade de abril e metade de junho nas experiências do primeira ano e em fevereiro e maio nas experiências do segundo ano. Os resultados das experiências do primeiro ano mostraram que a emissão de brotos foi maior na variedade espinhosa do que no rufia (mais de 6 emitida gomos/cladode vs inferior a 4,5 no rufia variedades). No segundo ano, a irrigação aumentou a emissão dos botões nas três variedades (mais de 7 botões emitidos/cladÓdio para cada T2 e T3 de todas as variedades não mais que 5 para o T1) e a duração da fase de florescência destas variedades. Contudo, a irrigação não alterou as proporções de frutos que alcançaram a maturidade comercial durante o período adiantado ou atrasado de maturação.

Effect of irrigation at critical stages on the phenology of flowering and fruiting of the cactus Opuntia spp / Efeito da irrigação em estágios críticos sobre a fenologia de floração e frutificação do cacto Opuntia spp

This paper briefly reports some effects of irrigations at two critical periods on the phenology of three varieties of cactus pear cultivated in Agadir area: the spineless varieties Aissa and Moussa and the thorny one Achefri. In the first year experiments (2010-2011) treatments of irrigation used were: (T1) 0 mm, (T2) 30 mm during flowering and 30 mm during fruit enlargement and (T3) 30 mm only during fruit enlargement. In the 2nd year experiments, irrigation treatments were: (T1) 0 mm, (T2) 60 mm during flowering and 60 mm during fruit enlargement and (T3) 60 mm only during fruit enlargement. Treatments of irrigation were applied between mid-April and mid-June in the 1st year experiments and in February and May in the 2nd year experiments. Results of the first year experiments showed that the emission of buds was higher in the thorny variety than in the spineless ones (more than 6 emitted buds/cladode vs less than 4.5 in the spineless varieties). In the second year, irrigation increased the emission of buds in the three varieties (more than 7 emitted buds/cladode for each T2 and T3 of all varieties vs not more than 5 for T1) and the duration of the flowering phase of these varieties. However, irrigation did not modify the proportions of fruits reaching commercial maturity during the early or the late period of maturation.(AU)

Este artigo relatou brevemente alguns efeitos das irrigações em dois períodos críticos na fenologia de três variedades de Opuntia cultivadas na área de Agadir: as variedades sem espinhos 'Aissa' e 'Moussa' e um espinhoso 'Achefri'. No primeiro ano (2010-2011) os seguintes tratamentos do experimento da irrigação foram usados: (T1) 0 milímetros, (T2) 30 milímetros durante a florescência e 30 milímetros durante a ampliação do fruto e (T3) 30 milímetros somente durante a ampliação do fruto. No segundo ano das experiências, os tratamentos da irrigação foram: (T1, 0 milímetros), (T2) 60 milímetros durante a florescência e 60 milímetros durante a ampliação do fruto e (T3) 60 milímetros somente durante a ampliação do fruto. Os tratamentos da irrigação foram aplicados entre a metade de abril e metade de junho nas experiências do primeira ano e em fevereiro e maio nas experiências do segundo ano. Os resultados das experiências do primeiro ano mostraram que a emissão de brotos foi maior na variedade espinhosa do que no rufia (mais de 6 emitida gomos/cladode vs inferior a 4,5 no rufia variedades). No segundo ano, a irrigação aumentou a emissão dos botões nas três variedades (mais de 7 botões emitidos/cladÓdio para cada T2 e T3 de todas as variedades não mais que 5 para o T1) e a duração da fase de florescência destas variedades. Contudo, a irrigação não alterou as proporções de frutos que alcançaram a maturidade comercial durante o período adiantado ou atrasado de maturação.(AU)

Phenology of Guarea macrophylla Vahl (Meliaceae) in subtropical riparian forest in southern Brazil / Fenologia de Guarea macrophylla Vahl (Meliaceae) em mata ciliar subtropical no sul do Brasil

Climate is one of the main factors that affect plant behavior. The phenology of Guarea macrophylla Vahl, which is a small tree used for reforestation of degraded areas, was monitored for 18 months in a riparian forest at the Schmidt Stream, Campo Bom, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil. Vegetative (leaf fall and leaf flushing) and reproductive events were observed, with the latter divided into flowering (flower buds and anthesis) and fruiting (unripe, ripening and ripe fruit). Phenological events were related to temperature, photoperiod and precipitation and their seasonality was verified by circular statistical analysis. Vegetative phenophases were continuous; they were not related to climate factors and presented low intensity, emphasizing the perennial aspect of the species. Flowering occurred during spring and summer. Both flower buds and anthesis were related to temperature and photoperiod. Fruiting was constant and went through all stages of development. Unripe fruits developed during the months with the lowest photoperiod and ripen more intensely in winter, on colder days. Ripe fruit became available for dispersal in spring, in times of longer photoperiod and higher temperatures. Except for leaf fall, all other phenological events showed seasonality in their manifestation. The one-month difference between the onsets of the flowering phases observed in this study indicated that local climate changes induced the early occurrence of this phenophase.(AU)

O clima é um dos principais fatores que condicionam o comportamento das plantas. A fenologia de Guarea macrophylla Vahl, arvoreta utilizada no reflorestamento de áreas degradadas, foi acompanhada durante 18 meses, em mata ciliar do arroio Schmidt, Campo Bom, RS, Brasil. Foram observados os eventos vegetativos (queda foliar e brotamento) e reprodutivos, separados em floração (botão floral e antese) e frutificação (frutos imaturos, maturando e maduros). Os eventos fenológicos foram relacionados à temperatura, ao fotoperíodo e à precipitação e a sua sazonalidade foi verificada por meio da análise estatística circular. As fenofases vegetativas foram contínuas, não se relacionaram com os fatores climáticos e apresentaram baixa intensidade, ressaltando a característica perene da espécie. A floração ocorreu durante a primavera e o verão e tanto botão floral quanto antese relacionaram-se com temperatura e fotoperíodo. A frutificação foi constante e passou por todos os estádios de desenvolvimento. Os frutos imaturos desenvolveram-se em meses com o menor fotoperíodo e maturaram mais intensamente no inverno, em dias de menor temperatura. Os frutos maduros tornaram-se disponíveis para os dispersores na primavera, em períodos com maior fotoperíodo e temperatura. Com exceção da queda foliar, todos os outros eventos fenológicos apresentaram sazonalidade em sua manifestação. O adiantamento de um mês entre as florações observadas no presente estudo indicou que as alterações climáticas locais de temperatura induziram a ocorrência antecipada dessa fenofase.(AU)