Spatial distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in dust and soils from informal trade sites in southern Nigeria: Implications for risk and source analysis.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of semi-volatile and persistent organic compounds considered priority pollutants because of their pervasive nature and high toxicity to the ecosystem and humans. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the PAH concentrations in dust and soils around informal trade sites (ITS) in Nigeria to determine the level of risk, sources, and significance of these activities to the PAH load of the environment. The 16 US EPA PAHs in dust and soils from ITS were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The PAH concentrations in dust from these informal trade sites varied from 120 to 8790, 56 to 4780, and 102-1090 µg kg-1 for automobile mechanic workshops (AMW), car dismantling (CDS), and material recovery sites (MRS), respectively, whereas those of soils ranged from 3000 to 95,500, 554 to 14,700, and 966-25,200 µg kg-1 for AMW, CDS, and MRS respectively. The PAH profiles indicated that 3- to 5-ring PAHs were prominent in dust and soils around the ITS. The concentrations of the US EPA 16 PAHs in dust and soils from these ITS showed no correlation with organic matter, while the concentrations of PAH homologues in soils of these ITS showed no correlation with those of dust. Incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) values in the magnitude of 10-4 to 101 were obtained for adult and childhood exposure to PAHs in dust and soils from these ITS. Exposure to PAHs in dust from these ITS gives rise to less risk than for soils. The results indicated that automobile mechanic workshops contribute more PAHs to the environment than car dismantling and material recovery activities. The source analysis showed that the PAH contamination of these sites arises from burning of biomass, plastic materials, and oils, and emissions from vehicles.

Do Fakes Exist? Trade and Consumption of Sex Enhancers in Harare's Avenues.

After the ban of over-the-counter sex enhancers in 2013 by the Medical Control Authority of Zimbabwe (MCAZ), the streets of the inner city area of Harare called The Avenues became a haven for illegal traders in sex enhancers. This article explores how products that are banned by the state acquire their own agencies. From the traders' perspectives, the point of departure to understanding efficacy is not the sex enhancers, but their clients' needs and their body systems. Thus, the authenticity of the products ceases to be a point of reference. The trade and consumption of sex enhancers amongst Zimbabweans is itself intricately intertwined with the broader political economy of the country. A deteriorating economy has engendered a crisis of masculinity which has contributed towards increased trade and consumption in sex enhancers. The article argues that drug efficacy is a complex phenomenon, whose conceptualisation and manifestations are fluid and not always pharmacological. The research documents six months in The Avenues as research "field", enriched by both online and traditional ethnographies. The analysis aims to understand perceptions of and dynamics around the efficacy of sex enhancers sold in Harare's urban streets.

Do tax policies discriminate against female traders? A gender framework to study informal marketplaces in Nigeria.

Scholars have long debated formalizing the informal sector through taxation, but how do these processes affect gender inequalities? Our study in Nigerian markets contributes a gender framework to the equitable taxation literature on formalization. The study draws on a survey of 451 traders in 12 markets, key informant interviews, and ethnographic research in four markets of two states. We find that in at least two situations taxation policies discriminated against women implicitly: (1) male tax collectors had higher incidences of harassment on all traders and (2) taxing traders with flat taxes penalized women, as they earned less than men but were taxed the same.

Los académicos han debatido durante mucho tiempo la formalización del sector informal a través de impuestos, pero ¿cómo afectan estos procesos a las desigualdades de género? Nuestro estudio en los mercados de Nigeria aporta un marco de género a la literatura sobre tributación equitativa sobre la formalización. El estudio se basa en una encuesta de 451 comerciantes en 12 mercados, entrevistas con informantes clave e investigación etnográfica en cuatro mercados de dos estados. Encontramos que en al menos dos situaciones, las políticas tributarias discriminaban implícitamente a las mujeres: 1) los recaudadores de impuestos masculinos tenían una mayor incidencia de acoso en todos los comerciantes; 2) gravar a los comerciantes con impuestos fijos penalizaba a las mujeres, ya que ganaban menos que los hombres pero pagaban los mismos impuestos.

Informal trade in livestock and livestock products.

Informal trade in livestock and livestock products is of special concern because of the risk of spreading animal and human diseases. At the same time, informal trade can contribute to people's livelihoods and food security, especially in lowand middle-income countries. Informal trade may involve legal or illegal products. It may be domestic (or internal) or involve neighbouring countries; it may take place within a region or between distant countries. Entrepôt trade (or 're-exports') is a significant form of informal trade in livestock products. Pastoral mobility often entails movement across boundaries for trade and much of this is also informal. There are important economic, social, political, and environmental drivers for informal trade which make it difficult to eliminate. Informal livestock trade may be largely ignored by the authorities, implicitly encouraged, made less attractive, forcibly suppressed, or actively engaged with, in an attempt to mitigate its risks and enhance its benefits. To identify the optimal management approach, it is crucial to understand the importance and characteristics of informal trade, its benefits and risks, and the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of different strategies to address it. The authors describe a case study from East Africa to explore some of the issues raised by informal trade.

Le commerce informel d'animaux d'élevage et de produits d'origine animale est un sujet particulièrement préoccupant en raison du risque de propagation de maladies animales et humaines associé à cette activité. En même temps, le commerce informel apporte aux populations des moyens de subsistance et contribue à leur sécurité alimentaire, en particulier dans les pays à revenu faible et intermédiaire. Le commerce informel peut porter sur des produits licites ou illicites. Il peut être domestique (marché intérieur) ou inclure les pays avoisinants ; il peut se dérouler dans une même région ou bien entre pays distants. La réexportation (ou recours aux entrepôts francs) constitue une modalité importante du commerce informel de produits issus de l'élevage. Le pastoralisme, qui se caractérise par sa mobilité, entraîne souvent des mouvements transfrontaliers en vue de transactions commerciales dont une grande partie est également informelle. Il existe d'importants moteurs économiques, sociaux, politiques et environnementaux qui favorisent le commerce informel et le rendent difficile à éliminer. Les réponses déployées par les pouvoirs publics face au commerce informel d'animaux d'élevage sont diverses : l'ignorer, l'encourager implicitement, le rendre moins attractif, le réprimer par la force, ou l'accompagner de manière active, le but étant d'atténuer les risques ou d'optimiser les bénéfices qui lui sont associés. Pour définir la meilleure approche de gestion, il est indispensable de bien comprendre l'importance et les caractéristiques du commerce informel, ses bénéfices et ses risques, ainsi que la faisabilité des différentes stratégies d'intervention et leur efficacité au regard de leur coût. Les auteurs décrivent une étude menée en Afrique de l'Est qui permet d'analyser certaines questions soulevées par le commerce informel.

El comercio informal de ganado y productos ganaderos suscita especial inquietud porque trae consigo el riesgo de propagación de enfermedades animales y humanas. Al mismo tiempo, puede contribuir al sustento y a la seguridad alimentaria de las personas, especialmente en los países de renta baja y de renta media. Este tipo de comercio puede tratar con productos legales o ilegales. A veces las transacciones son internas (nacionales), a veces interesan a países contiguos y otras veces tienen lugar dentro de una gran región o entre países distantes. El comercio de reexportación (o uso de puertos francos) es una de las formas importantes que reviste el comercio informal de productos ganaderos. La movilidad propia de las poblaciones que viven del pastoreo las lleva a menudo a cruzar fronteras para entablar transacciones comerciales que son mayoritariamente informales. El comercio informal obedece a importantes factores económicos, sociales, políticos y ambientales que lo alimentan y hacen difícil eliminarlo. La postura de las autoridades respecto del comercio informal de ganado es muy variable: a veces se desentienden en gran medida de él, otras veces lo alientan tácitamente, en ocasiones adoptan medidas para restarle atractivo o lo reprimen por la fuerza e incluso a veces participan activamente en él, tratando así de mitigar los riesgos que entraña y de potenciar sus beneficios. Para determinar la forma idónea de manejar el fenómeno del comercio informal es básico aprehender su importancia y características, sus ventajas y riesgos y la viabilidad y relación costo-eficacia de las distintas posturas que se pueden adoptar ante él. Los autores parten de un estudio monográfico realizado en el África Oriental para abordar algunos de los interrogantes que suscita el comercio informal.

Transboundary spread of pig diseases: the role of international trade and travel.

As globalization increases the interconnectedness between nations, economies, and industries, the introduction of diseases will continue to remain a prominent threat to the livestock sector and the trade of animals and animal products, as well as the livelihoods of farmers, food security and public health. The global pig sector, with its size and dichotomy between production type and biosecurity level, is particularly vulnerable to the transmission of transboundary animal diseases such as African and classical swine fever, foot and mouth disease, or porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome. All of the above pose a constant threat to swine health, mainly as a result of both formal and informal international trade.Inspired in the risk assessment methodology, this paper classifies and provides an overview of the different pig disease introduction and exposure pathways, illustrated with abundant examples. Introduction pathways are classified as formal international trade (by product), informal international trade (by product), and spread through fomites. Formal trade of pigs and pork products is regulated by legislation and measures protecting animal populations from exotic diseases. Much more difficult to control is the transboundary swine disease transmission originating through informal trade, which entails illegal smuggling, but also the informal cross-border transfer of animals and products for personal use or within informal market chains. Meat products are most commonly mentioned, although fomites have also played a role in some cases, with live pigs, being more difficult to smuggle playing a role less frequently. The main exposure pathways are also described with the oral route playing a prominent role.Risk assessments can aid in the identification of pathways of pathogen introduction and exposure. However, quantitative information on informal disease introduction pathways remains very scarce and often incomplete, making it difficult to estimate the actual magnitudes of risks. Nevertheless, this knowledge is deemed essential to set up risk based awareness, prevention and surveillance programs that correspond to reality.

Informal inter-island poultry movement in Indonesia: does it pose a risk to HPAI H5N1 transmission?

Informal movement of domesticated poultry and wild birds is considered a major threat in terms of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 transmission between birds and from birds to humans. However, the risk of transmission from informal illegal poultry movement has received little attention in Indonesia where human fatalities are the highest in the world. This research investigated the illegal movement of adult poultry between the islands of Java, Bali and Lombok to determine the potential risk of HPAI H5N1 transmission. The aim was to determine known origins and destinations of poultry, estimated quantity and types of birds, people involved and the drivers of illegal movement. Transportation and handling methods and views on how to minimise illegal movement were also investigated. In-depth interviews were carried out with 71 key informants in Bali and Lombok in 2009. East Java was the main origin of poultry entering Bali, followed by Central Java and Lombok. Interviewees estimated that over 10,000 village chickens, 500 ducks and 50 fighting cocks were brought into Bali per month from all origins. However, there were significant discrepancies with quarantine records indicating that the majority of birds imported illegally are not detected. We conclude that although informal illegal movement of poultry in Indonesia poses a potentially high risk for potential HPAI H5N1 transmission if birds are infected, much can be done to increase surveillance, encourage reporting of sick birds, educate traders about the risks and provide effective quarantine within an appropriate cultural framework.

Condições higiênico-sanitárias da bebida guaraná da Amazônia comercializada por vendedores ambulantes na cidade de São Luís, MA / Sanitary conditions of the Amazonian guarana drink sold by street vendors in the city of São Luís, MA

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar as condições higiênico-sanitárias da bebida guaraná da Amazônia comercializada por vendedores ambulantes na cidade de São Luís, Maranhão. Trinta amostras, provenientes de 10 pontos de venda, foram submetidas às seguintes análises microbiológicas: pesquisa de Salmonella spp., quantificação do número mais provável de coliformes a 35°C e a 45°C, enumeração de bactérias aeróbias mesófilas, fungos e estafilococoscoagulase positivos. Em cada ponto de venda avaliado foi aplicado um questionário tipo check-list para verificar as condições higiênicas do local e de preparo do guaraná da Amazônia. Verificaram-se nas amostras os micro-organismos pesquisados, com exceção de Salmonella spp. Foram encontradas contagens elevadas de coliformes a 35ºC (n= 24; 80%) e a 45ºC (n=18; 60%), indicando condições higiênico-sanitárias insatisfatórias das amostras analisadas. Também foram verificadas várias inadequações nos pontos de venda, indicando deficiências higiênicas no preparo da bebida guaraná da Amazônia. Os resultados reforçam a importância de investimentos em programas de qualidade, conscientização e treinamento para os vendedores ambulantes da bebida guaraná da Amazônia na cidade de São Luís, Maranhão.(AU)

The objective of this study was to evaluate the hygienic-sanitary conditions of the Amazonian guarana drink sold by street vendors in the city of Sao Luís, Maranhão, Brazil. Thirty samples from 10 outlets were subjected to the following microbiological analysis: Salmonella spp., quantification of the most probable number of coliforms at 35°C and 45°C, enumeration of mesophilic aerobic bacteria, fungi and Staphylococcus coagulase-positive. A check-list questionnaire was administered at each point of sale assessed to check the hygienic conditions of the site and preparation of the drink. Except for Salmonella spp., all microorganisms studied were found in the samples. We found high counts of coliforms at 35ºC (n=24; 80%) and 45°C (n=18; 60%), indicating inadequate sanitary conditions of the samples. Also, there were numerous gaps in retail outlets, indicating impairment in the preparation of the Amazonian guarana drink. The results reinforce the importance of investing in quality programs, awareness and training for street vendors in the city of Sao Luís, Maranhão.(AU)