Creation of an Isogenic Human iPSC-Based RGC Model of Dominant Optic Atrophy Harboring the Pathogenic Variant c.1861C>T (p.Gln621Ter) in the OPA1 Gene.

Autosomal dominant optic atrophy (ADOA) is a rare progressive disease mainly caused by mutations in OPA1, a nuclear gene encoding for a mitochondrial protein that plays an essential role in mitochondrial dynamics, cell survival, oxidative phosphorylation, and mtDNA maintenance. ADOA is characterized by the degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). This causes visual loss, which can lead to legal blindness in many cases. Nowadays, there is no effective treatment for ADOA. In this article, we have established an isogenic human RGC model for ADOA using iPSC technology and the genome editing tool CRISPR/Cas9 from a previously generated iPSC line of an ADOA plus patient harboring the pathogenic variant NM_015560.3: c.1861C>T (p.Gln621Ter) in heterozygosis in OPA1. To this end, a protocol based on supplementing the iPSC culture media with several small molecules and defined factors trying to mimic embryonic development has been employed. Subsequently, the created model was validated, confirming the presence of a defect of intergenomic communication, impaired mitochondrial respiration, and an increase in apoptosis and ROS generation. Finally, we propose the analysis of OPA1 expression by qPCR as an easy read-out method to carry out future drug screening studies using the created RGC model. In summary, this model provides a useful platform for further investigation of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms of ADOA plus and for testing compounds with potential pharmacological action.

Atypical Presentation of Foster Kennedy Syndrome due to Neurocysticercosis: A Rare Case Report.

This case highlights the atypical presentation of Foster-Kennedy syndrome (FKS) associated with Neurocysticercosis (NCC), a prevalent cause of space-occupying lesions in areas endemic to the parasite. We report a newly diagnosed case of NCC in a 13-year-old boy who presented with a one-day history of abnormal movements of the left side of the body and no ocular complaints. Fundus examination of the patient revealed temporal disc pallor and a cup disc ratio (CDR) of 0.6 in the right eye suggesting unilateral optic disc atrophy and a hyperaemic disc with CDR 0.3 and blood vessel tortuosity in the left eye suggesting contralateral impending disc edema, mimicking the classic triad of FKS. He was diagnosed with NCC based on clinical features and radiological findings and was started on Carbamazepine (400 mg), Prednisolone (60 mg), Albendazole (400 mg), Acetazolamide (750 mg), and Vitamin B12 complex. Abbreviations: BCVA = Best Corrected Visual Acuity, CDR = Cup-Disc Ratio, CT = Computed Tomography, FKS = Foster Kennedy Syndrome, IDSA = Infectious Diseases Society of America, ICP = Intracranial Pressure, IOP = Intraocular Pressure, MRI = Magnetic Resonance Imaging, NCC = Neurocysticercosis, OOC = Orbital/Ocular Cysticercosis, OD = Right Eye, OS = Left Eye, OU = Both Eyes, RNFL = Retinal Nerve Fibre Layer, WNL = Within Normal Limits.

Exploring the evidence for mitochondrial dysfunction and genetic abnormalities in the etiopathogenesis of tropical ataxic neuropathy.

Tropical ataxic neuropathy (TAN) is characterised by ataxic polyneuropathy, degeneration of the posterior columns and pyramidal tracts, optic atrophy, and sensorineural hearing loss. It has been attributed to nutritional/toxic etiologies, but evidence for the same has been equivocal. TAN shares common clinical features with inherited neuropathies and mitochondrial disorders, it may be hypothesised that genetic abnormalities may underlie the pathophysiology of TAN. This study aimed to establish evidence for mitochondrial dysfunction by adopting an integrated biochemical and multipronged genetic analysis. Patients (n = 65) with chronic progressive ataxic neuropathy with involvement of visual and/or auditory pathways underwent deep phenotyping, genetic studies including mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) deletion analysis, mtDNA and clinical exome sequencing (CES), and respiratory chain complex (RCC) assay. The phenotypic characteristics included dysfunction of visual (n = 14), auditory (n = 12) and visual + auditory pathways (n = 29). Reduced RCC activity was present in 13 patients. Mitochondrial DNA deletions were noted in five patients. Sequencing of mtDNA (n = 45) identified a homoplasmic variant (MT-ND6) and a heteroplasmic variant (MT-COI) in one patient each. CES (n = 45) revealed 55 variants in nuclear genes that are associated with neuropathy (n = 27), deafness (n = 7), ataxia (n = 4), and mitochondrial phenotypes (n = 5) in 36 patients. This study provides preliminary evidence that TAN is associated with a spectrum of genetic abnormalities, including those associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, which is in contradistinction from the prevailing hypothesis that TAN is related to dietary toxins. Analysing the functional relevance of these genetic variants may improve the understanding of the pathogenesis of TAN.

A case for the use of chemotherapy in hereditary mitochondrial optic neuropathies: Successful administration of cisplatin/etoposide in a male patient with testicular seminoma and Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy.

We report on the successful use of chemotherapy for treatment of stage 2B testicular seminoma in a carrier of the Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy 11778 mitochondrial mutation. Neurotoxic chemotherapy may not prompt disease conversion.

Childhood Cerebral Adrenoleukodystrophy: Case Report and Literature Review Advocating for Newborn Screening.

Background: X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) is a rare genetic disorder caused by a pathogenic variant of the ABCD1 gene, leading to impaired peroxisomal function and the accumulation of very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs). ALD presents a wide range of neurological and adrenal symptoms, ranging from childhood cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy to adrenomyeloneuropathy and adrenal insufficiency. Newborn screening (NBS) for ALD is available in some regions but remains lacking in others, such as India. Case Presentation: We present a case of a 10-year-old boy with ALD who presented with seizures, progressive weakness, visual impairment, and adrenal insufficiency. Despite symptomatic management and dietary adjustments, the disease progressed rapidly, leading to respiratory failure and eventual demise. The diagnosis was confirmed through molecular analysis and elevated VLCFA levels. Neuroimaging revealed characteristic white matter changes consistent with ALD. Conclusion: ALD is a devastating disease with no cure, emphasizing the importance of early detection through newborn screening and genetic testing. Management strategies include adrenal hormone therapy, gene therapy, and allogenic stem cell transplantation, as well as investigational treatments such as VLCFA normalization. Our case advocates the need for worldwide NBS and pediatric neurologic follow-up to enable early intervention and improve patient outcomes. Additionally, the association between ALD, recurrent febrile seizures, and unexplained developmental delay warrants further investigation to better understand disease progression and potential therapeutic targets.

Maculopapillary Bundle Degeneration in Optic Neuropathies.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Degeneration of the maculopapillary bundle (MPB) is a prominent feature in a spectrum of optic neuropathies. MPB-selective degeneration is seen in specific conditions, such as nutritional and toxic optic neuropathies, Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON), and dominant optic atrophy (DOA). Despite their distinct etiologies and clinical presentations, which encompass variations in age of incidence and monocular or binocular onset, these disorders share a core molecular mechanism: compromised mitochondrial homeostasis. This disruption is characterized by dysfunctions in mitochondrial metabolism, biogenesis, and protein synthesis. This article provides a comprehensive understanding of the MPB's role in optic neuropathies, emphasizing the importance of mitochondrial mechanisms in the pathogenesis of these conditions. RECENT FINDINGS: Optical coherence tomography studies have characterized the retinal nerve fiber layer changes accompanying mitochondrial-affiliated optic neuropathies. Selective thinning of the temporal optic nerve head is preceded by thickening in early stages of these disorders which correlates with reductions in macular ganglion cell layer thinning and vascular atrophy. A recently proposed mechanism underpinning the selective atrophy of the MPB involves the positive feedback of reactive oxygen species generation as a common consequence of mitochondrial dysfunction. Additionally, new research has revealed that the MPB can undergo degeneration in the early stages of glaucoma, challenging the historically held belief that this area was not involved in this common optic neuropathy. A variety of anatomical risk factors influence the propensity of glaucomatous MPB degeneration, and cases present distinct patterns of ganglion cell degeneration that are distinct from those observed in mitochondria-associated diseases. This review synthesizes clinical and molecular research on primary MPB disorders, highlighting the commonalities and differences in their pathogenesis. KEY POINTS (BOX): 1. Temporal degeneration of optic nerve fibers accompanied by cecocentral scotoma is a hallmark of maculopapillary bundle (MPB) degeneration. 2. Mechanisms of MPB degeneration commonly implicate mitochondrial dysfunction. 3. Recent research challenges the traditional belief that the MPB is uninvolved in glaucoma by showing degeneration in the early stages of this common optic neuropathy, yet with features distinct from other MPB-selective neuropathies. 4. Reactive oxygen species generation is a mechanism linking mitochondrial mechanisms of MPB-selective optic neuropathies, but in-vivo and in-vitro studies are needed to validate this hypothesis.

An adolescent male with persistent urinary symptoms.

An 11-year-old male child who presented with increased frequency of urination, thirst and feeling of incomplete void was initially diagnosed with diabetes mellitus (DM) based on elevated blood sugar. Polyuria and polydipsia were confirmed even after normalisation of blood sugar. A standardised water deprivation test showed presence of central diabetes insipidus (DI) and patient was started on desmopressin. Presence of DM and DI led to suspicion of DIDMOAD/Wolfram syndrome and ophthalmic examination confirmed bilateral optic atrophy. Despite treatment for DM and DI the urinary complaints persisted, and ultrasound showed persistent bilateral hydronephroureterosis. Bladder workup including voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) and urodynamic study reported thickened trabeculated bladder wall along with overactivity, poor compliance and high bladder pressure. Bladder dysfunction has been documented to be associated with Wolfram syndrome and often may lead to chronic kidney disease which can be prevented by early diagnosis and appropriate management. The case highlights the need for comprehensive evaluation of children with urinary symptoms.

Mutations in NSUN3, a Mitochondrial Methyl Transferase Gene, Cause Inherited Optic Neuropathy.

Inherited optic neuropathies (IONs) are rare genetic diseases characterized by progressive visual loss due the atrophy of optic nerves. The standard diagnostic workup involving next-generation sequencing panels has a diagnostic yield of about forty percent. In the other 60% of the patients with a clinical diagnosis of ION, the underlying genetic variants remain unknown. In this case study, we describe a potentially new disease-associated gene, NSUN3, for IONs. The proband was a young woman with consanguineous parents. She presented with bilateral optic atrophy and nystagmus at the age of seven years. Genetic testing revealed the homozygous variant c.349_352dup p.(Ala118Glufs*45) in NSUN3, with a segregation in the family compatible with autosomal recessive inheritance. Additional functional analysis showed decreased NSUN3 mRNA levels, slightly diminished mitochondrial complex IV levels, and decreased cell respiration rates in patient fibroblasts compared to healthy controls. In conclusion, pathogenic variants in NSUN3 can cause optic neuropathy. Trio whole-exome sequencing should be considered as a diagnostic strategy in ION cases where standard diagnostic analysis does not reveal disease-causing variants.

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy like disease in MT-ATP6 variant m.8969G>A.

Purpose: To describe a case with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) like optic atrophy in the presence of MT-ATP6 gene variant m.8969G > A. Observations: A 20-year-old patient with a history of mild developmental delay, mild cognitive impairment, and positional tremor presented with subacute painless visual loss over a few weeks. Mitochondrial genome sequencing revealed a variant in MT-ATP6, m.8969G > A (p.Ser148Asn). This variant was previously reported in association with mitochondrial myopathy, lactic acidosis, and sideroblastic anemia (MLASA) and with nephropathy, followed by brain atrophy, muscle weakness and arrhythmias, but not with optic atrophy. Conclusions and importance: Rare variants in MT-ATP6 can also cause LHON like optic atrophy. It is important to perform further genetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA in genetically unsolved cases suspected of Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy to confirm the clinical diagnosis.

Inhibition of MFN1 restores tamoxifen-induced apoptosis in resistant cells by disrupting aberrant mitochondrial fusion dynamics.

Tamoxifen (TAM) resistance presents a major clinical obstacle in the management of estrogen-sensitive breast cancer, highlighting the need to understand the underlying mechanisms and potential therapeutic approaches. We showed that dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics were involved in TAM resistance by protecting against mitochondrial apoptosis. The dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics were associated with increased mitochondrial fusion and decreased fission, thus preventing the release of mitochondrial cytochrome c to the cytoplasm following TAM treatment. Dynamin-related GTPase protein mitofusin 1 (MFN1), which promotes fusion, was upregulated in TAM-resistant cells, and high MFN1 expression indicated a poor prognosis in TAM-treated patients. Mitochondrial translocation of MFN1 and interaction between MFN1 and mitofusin 2 (MFN2) were enhanced to promote mitochondrial outer membrane fusion. The interaction of MFN1 and cristae-shaping protein optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) and OPA1 oligomerization were reduced due to augmented OPA1 proteolytic cleavage, and their apoptosis-promoting function was reduced due to cristae remodeling. Furthermore, the interaction of MFN1 and BAK were increased, which restrained BAK activation following TAM treatment. Knockdown or pharmacological inhibition of MFN1 blocked mitochondrial fusion, restored BAK oligomerization and cytochrome c release, and amplified activation of caspase-3/9, thus sensitizing resistant cells to apoptosis and facilitating the therapeutic effects of TAM both in vivo and in vitro. Conversely, overexpression of MFN1 alleviated TAM-induced mitochondrial apoptosis and promoted TAM resistance in sensitive cells. These results revealed that dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics contributes to the development of TAM resistance, suggesting that targeting MFN1-mediated mitochondrial fusion is a promising strategy to circumvent TAM resistance.

Short Wavelength Automated Perimetry, Standard Automated Perimetry, and Optical Coherence Tomography in Dominant Optic Atrophy.

Background: Blue-yellow axis dyschromatopsia is well-known in Autosomal Dominant Optic Atrophy (ADOA) patients, but there were no data on the correlation between retinal structure and short-wavelength automated perimetry (SWAP) values in this pathology. Methods: In this cross-sectional case-control study, we assessed the correlation between best corrected visual acuity (BCVA), standard automated perimetry (SAP), SWAP, and optical coherence tomography (OCT) parameters of 9 ADOA patients compared with healthy controls. Correlation analysis was performed between BCVA, mean deviation, pattern standard deviation (PSD), and fovea sensitivity (FS) values and the OCT thickness of each retinal layer and the peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer (pRNFL). Results: The following significant and strong correlations were found: between BCVA and ganglion cell layer (GCL) and the global (G) pRNFL thicknesses; between SAP FS and GCL and the G-pRNFL thicknesses; between SWAP PSD and total retina, GCL, inner plexiform layer, inner nuclear layer, inner retinal layer and the temporal pRNFL thicknesses. We found a constant shorter duration of the SITA-SWAP compared with the SITA-STANDARD strategy. Conclusions: SWAP, SAP, and BCVA values provided relevant clinical information about retinal involvement in our ADOA patients. The perimetric functional parameters that seemed to correlate better with structure involvement were FS on SAP and PSD on SWAP.

The Effect of Cold-Water Swimming on Energy Metabolism, Dynamics, and Mitochondrial Biogenesis in the Muscles of Aging Rats.

Our study aimed to explore the potential positive effects of cold water exercise on mitochondrial biogenesis and muscle energy metabolism in aging rats. The study involved 32 male and 32 female rats aged 15 months, randomly assigned to control sedentary animals, animals training in cold water at 5 ± 2 °C, or animals training in water at thermal comfort temperature (36 ± 2 °C). The rats underwent swimming training for nine weeks, gradually increasing the duration of the sessions from 2 min to 4 min per day, five days a week. The results demonstrated that swimming in thermally comfortable water improved the energy metabolism of aging rat muscles (increased metabolic rates expressed as increased ATP, ADP concentration, TAN (total adenine nucleotide) and AEC (adenylate energy charge value)) and increased mRNA and protein expression of fusion regulatory proteins. Similarly, cold-water swimming improved muscle energy metabolism in aging rats, as shown by an increase in muscle energy metabolites and enhanced mitochondrial biogenesis and dynamics. It can be concluded that the additive effect of daily activity in cold water influenced both an increase in the rate of energy metabolism in the muscles of the studied animals and an intensification of mitochondrial biogenesis and dynamics (related to fusion and fragmentation processes). Daily activity in warm water also resulted in an increase in the rate of energy metabolism in muscles, but at the same time did not cause significant changes in mitochondrial dynamics.

A challenging differential diagnosis - Leber's Hereditary Optic Neuropathy.

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is the most common maternally inherited disease linked to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The patients present with subacute asymmetric bilateral vision loss. Approximately 95% of the LHON cases are caused by m.3460G>A (MTND1), m.11778G>A (MTND4), and m.14484T>C (MTND6) mutations. The hallmark of hereditary optic neuropathies determined by mitochondrial dysfunction is the vulnerability and degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGC). We present the case of a 28-year-old man who came to our clinic complaining of a subacute decrease in visual acuity of his left eye. From his medical history, we found out that one month before he had the same symptoms in the right eye. From the family history, we noted that an uncle has had vision problems since childhood. We carried out complete blood tests, including specific antibodies for autoimmune and infectious diseases. Laboratory tests and MRI were within normal limits. A blood test of the mtDNA showed the presence of 11778 G>A mutation on the mtND6 gene. The medical history, the fundus appearance, the OCT, and the paraclinical investigations, made us diagnose our patient with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy. As soon as possible, we began the treatment with systemic idebenone, 900 mg/day. We examined the patient 2, 6, and 10 weeks after initiating the treatment. Abbreviations: LHON = Leber's Hereditary Optic Neuropathy, mtDNA = mitochondrial DNA, VA = visual acuity, RE = right eye, LE = left eye, OCT = Optical coherence tomography, pRNFL = peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer, GCL = retinal ganglion cells layer, MRI = magnetic resonance imaging, VEP = visual evoked potentials, VEP IT = VEP implicit time, VEP A = VEP amplitude.

Genetic underpinnings explored: OPA1 deletion and complex phenotypes on chromosome 3q29.

BACKGROUND: Copy number variations (CNVs) have emerged as significant contributors to the elusive genetic causality of inherited eye diseases. In this study, we describe a case with optic atrophy and a brain aneurysm, in which a de novo CNV 3q29 deletion was identified. CASE PRESENTATION: A 40-year-old female patient was referred to our department after undergoing aneurysm transcatheter arterial embolization for a brain aneurysm. She had no history of systemic diseases, except for unsatisfactory best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) since elementary school. Electrophysiological tests confirmed the findings in retinal images, indicating optic nerve atrophy. Chromosomal microarray analysis revealed a de novo deletion spanning 960 kb on chromosome 3q29, encompassing OPA1 and six neighboring genes. Unlike previously reported deletions in this region associated with optic atrophy, neuropsychiatric disorders, and obesity, this patient displayed a unique combination of optic atrophy and a brain aneurysm. However, there is no causal relationship between the brain aneurysm and the CNV. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, the optic atrophy is conclusively attributed to the OPA1 deletion, and the aneurysm could be a coincidental association. The report emphasizes the likelihood of underestimating OPA1 deletions due to sequencing technology limitations. Recognizing these constraints, healthcare professionals must acknowledge these limitations and consistently search for OPA1 variants/deletions in Autosomal Dominant Optic Atrophy (ADOA) patients with negative sequencing results. This strategic approach ensures a more comprehensive exploration of copy-number variations, ultimately enhancing diagnostic precision in the field of genetic disorders.

Renal coloboma syndrome/dominant optic atrophy with severe retinal atrophy and de novo digenic mutations in PAX2 and OPA1.

Renal coloboma syndrome (RCS) and dominant optic atrophy are mainly caused by heterozygous mutations in PAX2 and OPA1, respectively. We describe a patient with digenic mutations in PAX2 and OPA1. A female infant was born without perinatal abnormalities. Magnetic resonance imaging at 4 months of age showed bilateral microphthalmia and optic nerve hypoplasia. Appropriate body size was present at 2 years of age, and mental development was favorable. Color fundus photography revealed severe retinal atrophy in both eyes. Electroretinography showed slight responses in the right eye, but no responses in the left eye, suggesting a high risk of blindness. Urinalysis results were normal, creatinine-based estimated glomerular filtration rate was 63.5 mL/min/1.73 m2, and ultrasonography showed bilateral hypoplastic kidneys. Whole exome sequencing revealed de novo frameshift mutations in PAX2 and OPA1. Both variants were classified as pathogenic (PVS1, PS2, PM2) based on the guidelines from the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG). Genetic testing for ocular diseases should be considered for patients with suspected RCS and a high risk of total blindness.

A Wolfram-like syndrome family: Case report.

BACKGROUND: Wolfram-like syndrome (WFLS) is an autosomal dominant inherited disease characterized by a single heterozygous pathogenic variant in the WFS1 gene. Its clinical presentation is similar to autosomal recessive Wolfram syndrome. CASE PRESENTATION: We reported a case of a 10-year-old boy and his family members who initially experienced hearing impairment (HI), followed by optic atrophy. Genetic testing revealed the presence of a WFS1 variant (chr4-6302385 exon8 NM_006005.3: c.2590G > A, p. Glu864Lys). CONCLUSION: Wolfram-like syndrome, a rare neurodegenerative genetic disorder, manifested as deafness, optic atrophy, and diabetes mellitus. There hasn't been a definite treatment yet. Early identification of the variant in the WFS1 gene is beneficial for genetic counseling.

Clinical, biochemical and molecular characterization of a new case with FDX2-related mitochondrial disorder: Potential biomarkers and treatment options.

Ferredoxin-2 (FDX2) is an electron transport protein required for iron-sulfur clusters biosynthesis. Pathogenic variants in FDX2 have been associated with autosomal recessive FDX2-related disorder characterized by mitochondrial myopathy with or without optic atrophy and leukoencephalopathy. We described a new case harboring compound heterozygous variants in FDX2 who presented with recurrent rhabdomyolysis with severe episodes affecting respiratory muscle. Biochemical analysis of the patients revealed hyperexcretion of 2-hydroxyadipic acid, along with previously reported biochemical abnormalities. The proband demonstrated increased lactate and creatine kinase (CK) with increased amount of glucose infusion. Lactate and CK drastically decreased when parenteral nutrition containing high protein and lipid contents with low glucose was initiated. Overall, we described a new case of FDX2-related disorder and compare clinical, biochemical and molecular findings with previously reported cases. We demonstrated that 2-hydroxyadipic acid biomarker could be used as an adjunct biomarker for FDX2-related disorder and the use of parenteral nutrition as a treatment option for the patient with FDX2-related disorder during rhabdomyolysis episode. Highlights: 2-Hydroxyadipic acid can serve as a potential adjunct biomarker for iron-sulfur assembly defects and lipoic acid biosynthesis disorders. Parenteral nutrition containing high lipid and protein content could be used to reverse acute rhabdomyolysis episodes in the patients with FDX2-related disorder.

Therapeutic benefit of idebenone in patients with Leber hereditary optic neuropathy: The LEROS nonrandomized controlled trial.

Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is a mitochondrial disease leading to rapid and severe bilateral vision loss. Idebenone has been shown to be effective in stabilizing and restoring vision in patients treated within 1 year of onset of vision loss. The open-label, international, multicenter, natural history-controlled LEROS study (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02774005) assesses the efficacy and safety of idebenone treatment (900 mg/day) in patients with LHON up to 5 years after symptom onset (N = 199) and over a treatment period of 24 months, compared to an external natural history control cohort (N = 372), matched by time since symptom onset. LEROS meets its primary endpoint and confirms the long-term efficacy of idebenone in the subacute/dynamic and chronic phases; the treatment effect varies depending on disease phase and the causative mtDNA mutation. The findings of the LEROS study will help guide the clinical management of patients with LHON.

Inherited Optic Neuropathies: Real-World Experience in the Paediatric Neuro-Ophthalmology Clinic.

Inherited optic neuropathies affect around 1 in 10,000 people in England; in these conditions, vision is lost as retinal ganglion cells lose function or die (usually due to pathological variants in genes concerned with mitochondrial function). Emerging gene therapies for these conditions have emphasised the importance of early and expedient molecular diagnoses, particularly in the paediatric population. Here, we report our real-world clinical experience of such a population, exploring which children presented with the condition, how they were investigated and the time taken for a molecular diagnosis to be reached. A retrospective case-note review of paediatric inherited optic neuropathy patients (0-16 years) in the tertiary neuro-ophthalmology service at Moorfields Eye Hospital between 2016 and 2020 identified 19 patients. Their mean age was 9.3 ± 4.6 (mean ± SD) years at presentation; 68% were male, and 32% were female; and 26% had comorbidities, with diversity of ethnicity. Most patients had undergone genetic testing (95% (n = 18)), of whom 43% (n = 8) received a molecular diagnosis. On average, this took 54.8 ± 19.5 weeks from presentation. A cerebral MRI was performed in 70% (n = 14) and blood testing in 75% (n = 15) of patients as part of their workup. Continual improvement in the investigative pathways for inherited optic neuropathies will be paramount as novel therapeutics become available.

Bilateral optic atrophy in Wilson disease: A case report and literature review.

Wilson disease (WD) is an autosomal recessive disorder of copper metabolism. The clinical manifestations of WD are complex and variable, with Kayser-Fleischer ring (K-F ring) and the sunflower cataract being the most common ocular findings. Visual impairment is rare in patients with WD. We report the case of a 17-year-old female with bilateral optic atrophy associated with WD and summarize the clinical features of previously reported cases of optic neuropathy in WD, Clinicians should be aware that WD is a rare cause of optic neuropathy and that optic neuropathy in patients with WD may need to be recognized and screened.