Exploring the Potential of Saffron as a Therapeutic Agent in Depression Treatment: A Comparative Review.

Depression is a significant mental health challenge globally. While traditional antidepressants are effective, they often have unwanted side effects. Saffron, a natural spice derived from Crocus sativus L., has emerged as a potential alternative therapy for depression. Researchers have found that its components such as crocin, crocetin, and safranal have been found to mitigate depressive symptoms through neurotransmitter regulation, anti-inflammatory effects, and neuroprotection. Clinical trials suggest that the effectiveness of saffron in treating mild to moderate depression is comparable to that of standard medications, and animal studies support these results, showing behavioral improvements with saffron treatment. Saffron is particularly appealing due to its safety and lower incidence of side effects, making it suitable for those sensitive to conventional drugs. Additionally, its antioxidant properties may offer further health benefits. However, challenges such as determining the appropriate dosage, prohibitive cost, and the limited availability of quality saffron need to be addressed. Most research on saffron's efficacy is short-term; thus, long-term studies are essential to understand its full therapeutic potential and ongoing antidepressant effects. While saffron is safe in terms of its culinary value, higher therapeutic doses require careful monitoring for drug interactions and side effects. In summary, saffron represents a promising direction in depression treatment, with benefits potentially matching those of standard treatments and a better safety profile. However, further research is necessary to establish clear guidelines for its use, optimize dosing, and assess long-term outcomes. Saffron offers a natural treatment path for depression, but its use must be controlled and supported by scientific evidence.

Role of auxin and gibberellin under low light in enhancing saffron corm starch degradation during sprouting.

The mechanisms by which low light accelerates starch macromolecules degradation by auxin and gibberellin (GA) in geophytes during sprouting remain largely unknown. This study investigated these mechanisms in saffron, grown under low light (50 µmol m-2 s-1) and optimal light (200 µmol m-2 s-1) during the sprouting phase. Low light reduced starch concentration in corms by 34.0 % and increased significantly sucrose levels in corms, leaves, and leaf sheaths by 19.2 %, 9.8 %, and 134.5 %, respectively. This was associated with a 33.3 % increase in GA3 level and enhanced auxin signaling. Leaves synthesized IAA under low light, which was transported to the corms to promote GA synthesis, facilitating starch degradation through a 228.7 % increase in amylase activity. Exogenous applications of GA and IAA, as well as the use of their synthesis or transport inhibitors, confirmed the synergistic role of these phytohormones in starch metabolism. The unigenes associated with GA biosynthesis and auxin signaling were upregulated under low light, highlighting the IAA-GA module role in starch degradation. Moreover, increased respiration rate and invertase activity, crucial for ATP biosynthesis and the tricarboxylic acid cycle, were consistent with the upregulation of related unigenes, suggesting that auxin signaling accelerates starch degradation by promoting energy metabolism. Upregulated of auxin signaling (CsSAUR32) and starch metabolism (CsSnRK1) genes under low light suggests that auxin directly regulate starch degradation in saffron corms. This study elucidates that low light modulates auxin and GA interactions to accelerate starch degradation in saffron corms during sprouting, offering insights for optimizing agricultural practices under suboptimal light conditions.

Crocus Sativus Linnaeus (Saffron) intake does not affect physiological and perceptual responses during a repeated sprint test in healthy active young males.

The study aimed to investigate the effects of acute ingestion of saffron (SAF) on physiological (i.e., heart rate and blood lactate) and perceptual (i.e., ratings of perceived exertion [RPE] and feeling scale) measures in response to a repeated-sprint ability test (RSS) in healthy young males (N = 22; mean ± SD: age, 21.7 ± 1.24 yrs.). All participants completed two experimental trials with a one-week washout period using a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design. In each session, the participants were randomly chosen to receive either a capsule of saffron (300 mg) (SAF session) or a capsule of lactose (PLB session) two hours before performing the RSS.No significant differences (p > 0.05) were found for heart rate, RPE, and feeling scale between the SAF or PLB sessions at pre- and post-RSS. There were no significant changes (p > 0.05) in peak time, total time, fatigue index, and blood lactate in either the SAF or PLB sessions. Acute SAF ingestion did not significantly improve RSS performance nor physiological and perceptual measures in active young males. Future trials should address the topic by using shortened/prolonged higher doses of SAF on biological, physical, physiological, and perceptual responses to acute and chronic exercise.

Evaluation of Saffron Quality Using Rapid Quantitative Inspection Technology with Near-Infrared Spectroscopy.

A predictive model utilizing near-infrared spectroscopy was developed to estimate the loss on drying, total contents of crocin I and crocin II, and picrocrocin content of saffron. Initially, the LD values were determined using a moisture-ash analyzer, while HPLC was employed for measuring the total contents of crocin I, crocin II, and picrocrocin. The near-infrared spectra of 928 saffron samples were collected and preprocessed using first derivative, standard normal variable transformation, detrended correction, multivariate scattering correction, Savitzky-Golay smoothing, and mean centering methods. Leveraging the partial least squares method, regression models were constructed, with parameters optimized through a selective combination of the above six preprocessing methods. Subsequently, prediction models for loss on drying, total contents of crocin I and crocin II, and picrocrocin content were established, and the prediction accuracy of the models was verified. The correlation coefficients and root mean square error of loss on drying, total contents of crocin I and crocin II, and picrocrocin content demonstrated high accuracy, with R2 values of 0.8627, 0.8851, and 0.8592 and root mean square error values of 0.0260, 0.0682, and 0.0465. This near-infrared prediction model established in the present study offers a precise and efficient means of assessing loss on drying, total contents of crocin I and crocin II, and picrocrocin content in saffron and is useful for the development of a rapid quality evaluation system.

Maximizing saffron apocarotenoid production in varied tomato fruit carotenoid contexts.

Saffron spice owes its commercial appreciation to its specific apocarotenoids: crocins, picrocrocin, and safranal. In Crocus sativus, these compounds are biosynthesized from zeaxanthin through oxidative cleavage by the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 2 (CCD2). Transgenic tomato plants expressing CsCCD2 in the fruit, named Tomaffron, accumulate high levels of saffron apocarotenoids despite the low substrate availability for CsCCD2. In the present study, CsCCD2 has been introduced into Xantomato; this tomato variety accumulates high levels of zeaxanthin and ß-carotene in ripe fruit due to a combination of four mutant alleles. Xantomato and Tomaffron genotypes have been combined to optimize apocarotenoid production. The best transgenic lines accumulated 15 and 14 times more crocins and picrocrocin than Tomaffron, alongside a fourfold increase in ß-carotene compared to Xantomato, albeit at a cost in fruit yield. Segregation of the four mutations has been carried out to find the best combination for obtaining high levels of saffron apocarotenoids without adverse effects on fruit yield. Plants harboring the high-pigmented 3 (hp3) and BETA (BSh) mutations accumulated 6 and 15 times more crocins and picrocrocin than Tomaffron, without observable pleiotropic effects. Additionally, those high levels of saffron apocarotenoids were obtained in fruit accumulating high levels of both lycopene and ß-carotene independently or in combination, suggesting a regulatory role for the apocarotenoids produced and indicating that it is possible to increase the levels of both types of healthy promoting molecules simultaneously.

Internet of things (IoT) based saffron cultivation system in greenhouse.

Saffron is the world's most expensive and legendary crop that is widely used in cuisine, drugs, and cosmetics. Therefore, the demand for saffron is increasing globally day by day. Despite its massive demand the cultivation of saffron has dramatically decreased and grown in only a few countries. Saffron is an environment-sensitive crop that is affected by various factors including rapid change in climate, light intensity, pH level, soil moisture, salinity level, and inappropriate cultivation techniques. It is not possible to control many of these environmental factors in traditional farming. Although, many innovative technologies like Artificial Intelligence and Internet of Things (IoT) have been used to enhance the growth of saffron still, there is a dire need for a system that can overcome primary issues related to saffron growth. In this research, we have proposed an IoT-based system for the greenhouse to control the numerous agronomical variables such as corm size, temperature, humidity, pH level, soil moisture, salinity, and water availability. The proposed architecture monitors and controls environmental factors automatically and sends real-time data from the greenhouse to the microcontroller. The sensed values of various agronomical variables are compared with threshold values and saved at cloud for sending to the farm owner for efficient management. The experiment results reveal that the proposed system is capable to maximize saffron production in the greenhouse by controlling environmental factors as per crop needs.

Saffron improves the efficacy of immunotherapy for colorectal cancer through the IL-17 signaling pathway.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Saffron is one of the traditional medicinal herbs, which contains various active ingredients, such as safranal, crocin, saffron acid, etc. It has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-cancer properties, and is widely used in clinical practice. The anti-cancer efficacy of saffron has been previously confirmed, but its anti-cancer mechanism in colorectal cancer remains unclear. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the effect of active compounds of saffron on the efficacy of immunotherapy for colorectal cancer. METHODS: TCMSP and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis (LC-MS), GeneCards, and DisGeNET databases were used to identify the active compounds of saffron, drug targets and the disease targets of colorectal cancer. They were then subjected to Gene Ontology Enrichment (GO) and Signalling Pathway Enrichment (KEGG) analyses. The core targets and corresponding compounds were selected for molecular docking. The effect of active components of saffron on the proliferation of CT26 and HCT116 cells was investigated using the cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8). In vitro experiments were conducted by subcutaneous injection of CT26 cells to establish a colon cancer model. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), western blotting (WB), real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), immunohistochemistry (IHC), and flow cytometry (FCM) were employed to validate the effects of saffron on colorectal cancer immunotherapy. RESULTS: 1. LC-MS analysis revealed that the main active component of saffron extract was crocin. The active chemicals of saffron intersected with 170 colorectal cancer targets, with 17 predicting targets for saffron treatment. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses revealed that the active components of saffron can prevent colorectal cancer development by enhancing Th17 cell differentiation and the IL-17 signaling pathway. 2. In vitro studies revealed that saffron alcohol extract, crocin, and safranal can suppress the proliferation of CT26 and HCT116 cells. 3. In vivo studies showed that crocin and safranal can increase the body mass and decrease the tumor mass of loaded mice, decrease the serum level of IL-17, and lower the mRNA expression level of IL-17, IL-6, TNF-α, TGF-ß, and PD-L1 and IL-17, PD-L1 protein in tumors. This inhibitory effect was strengthened after combined immunotherapy. In addition, saffron modulated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and the CD4+/CD8+T ratio in mouse spleens. CONCLUSION: The active components of saffron can reduce the expression of inflammatory factors and ameliorate the immunological microenvironment of tumors via the IL-17 signaling pathway, thereby improving the efficacy of immunotherapy for colorectal cancer. This study provides pharmacological support for the application of saffron in enhancing the efficacy of immunotherapy for colorectal cancer.

The suppressive effects of crocin from saffron on allergic airway inflammation through Drp1/Nfr1/Mfn2/Pgc1-alpha signaling pathway in mice.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Saffron is derived from the dried stigmas of Crocus sativus L., which was considered by ancient nations for food and medicinal purposes. In traditional medicine, the therapeutic use of Crocus sativus includes antispasmodic, antitussive and expectorant. AIM OF THE STUDY: Mitochondrial fusion, fission, biogenesis, and mitophagy are essential processes for maintaining mitochondrial dynamics in response to cellular stress. The primary objective of this research was to examine how crocin affected the levels of important mitochondrial regulators, including Drp1, Pgc1α, Nrf1, and Mfn2, in the lung tissue of ovalbumin-sensitized mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of fifty male BALB/C mice were randomly assigned to five unique groups (n = 10 for each group), including the control group, ovalbumin-sensitized group (OVA), OVA group treated with 30 mg/kg of crocin, OVA group treated with 60 mg/kg of crocin, and OVA group treated with 1 mg/kg of dexamethasone. Post-sensitization and ovalbumin challenge, mice lung tissues were evaluated for the expression of Drp1, Pgc1α, Nrf1, and Mfn2 mRNA levels using real-time PCR as well as histopathological assessments. RESULTS: In the OVA group, there was a significant elevated in inflammatory cells such as eosinophils, neutrophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes; however, crocin (both concentrations) and dexamethasone intervention showed significant inhibitory effects (P < 0.01 to P < 0.001). Moreover, an increase in the expression of Drp1, Pgc1α, and Nrf1 levels was seen in the OVA group, while crocin and dexamethasone showed protective benefits (P < 0.05 to P < 0.001). Furthermore, the levels of Mfn2 were reduced in the lung tissue of mice exposed to ovalbumin, but this decrease was reversed by crocin 60 (P < 0.05) and dexamethasone treatment (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: In mice with OVA sensitization, the balance of mitochondrial dynamics in lung tissue was disrupted, but intervention of crocin identified to have a protective effect.

Saffron (Crocus sativus) and its constituents in ovalbumin-induced asthma model: a preclinical systematic review and meta-analysis.

Background: Animal and human studies have demonstrated that the saffron and the active components of saffron, including crocin, crocetin, and safranal, possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties. In this meta-analysis, the preclinical evidence and potential mechanism of saffron were explored in an animal model of ovalbumin-induced asthma. Methods: Studies related to saffron and its constituents in an animal model of ovalbumin-induced asthma from the beginning to March 2024 were searched from Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. The methodological quality of the studies was evaluated using the 15-item CAMARADES checklist. Data analysis was performed using STATA software version 17. Results: Thirteen studies with 536 animals (268 animals in the intervention group and 268 animals in the ovalbumin-induced group) were analyzed. The meta-analysis findings demonstrated that saffron and its constituents played a significant role in reducing total WBC, eosinophil, lymphocyte, and monocyte counts. Moreover, saffron showed a significant decrease in the levels of IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IgE, histamine, endothelin, nitric oxide, and nitrite. Moreover, saffron was found to elevate EC50 thresholds and lower maximum response rates in experimental animals. The analysis revealed a significant identification of modulation in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress markers and miRNAs pathways. Conclusion: Saffron and its components may impact ovalbumin-induced asthma model in animals through anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory pathways, as well as improving pulmonary function and modulating ER stress markers and miRNAs pathways. As a result, saffron should be considered for further clinical trials in individuals suffering from asthma.

Antagonism of rhizosphere Trichoderma brevicompactum DTN19 against the pathogenic fungi causing corm rot in saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in vitro.

Introduction: Corm rot in saffron (Crocus sativus L.) significantly impacts yield and quality. Non-toxic fungi, particularly Trichoderma species, are valuable for biological control due to their production of diverse and biologically active secondary metabolites. Methods: This study aimed to isolate an effective antagonistic fungus against the pathogenic fungi causing corm rot in saffron. Four pathogenic fungi (Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium solani, Penicillium citreosulfuratum, and Penicillium citrinum) were isolated from diseased saffron bulbs in Chongming. Initial screening through dual culture with these pathogens re-screening from rhizosphere soil samples of C. sativus based on its inhibitory effects through volatile, nonvolatile, and fermentation broth metabolites. The inhibitory effect of biocontrol fungi on pathogenic fungi in vitro was evaluated by morphological observation and molecular biology methods. Results: Antagonistic fungi were identified as Trichoderma brevicompactum DTN19. F. oxysporum was identified as the most severe pathogen. SEM (scanning electron microscope) and TEM (transmission electron microscope) observations revealed that T. brevicompactum DTN19 significantly inhibited the growth and development of F. oxysporum mycelium, disrupting its physiological structure and spore formation. Additionally, T. brevicompactum DTN19 demonstrated nitrogen fixation and production of cellulase, IAA (Indole acetic acid), and siderophores. Whole-genome sequencing of strain DTN19 revealed genes encoding protease, cellulase, chitinase, ß-glucosidase, siderophore, nitrogen cycle, and sulfate transporter-related proteins. Discussion: T. brevicompactum DTN19 may inhibit the propagation of pathogenic fungi by destroying their cell walls or producing antibiotics. It can also produce IAA and iron carriers, which have the potential to promote plant growth. Overall, T. brevicompactum DTN19 showed the development prospect of biological agents.

Quercetin and kaempferol from saffron petals alleviated hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative damage in B16 cells.

BACKGROUND: Saffron petals are usually considered as waste after saffron harvest. However, saffron petals contain many important phytochemical components (e.g. quercetin and kaempferol), which may alleviate oxidative damage in human cells. RESULTS: The contents of flavonoids and crocin in different parts of saffron were analyzed. The protective effects of flavonoids from saffron on oxidative damage of B16 cells were investigated. Saffron stigma contained high contents of crocin and picrocrocin, whereas flavonoid content (quercetin, 4.03 ± 0.33 mg g-1 DW; kaempferol, 47.80 ± 0.60 mg g-1 DW) was higher in saffron petals than in other parts. Incubation of B16 cells with quercetin (10-30 µmol L-1) and kaempferol (20-30 µmol L-1) obtained from saffron extracts could significantly increase the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) and the activity of NADPH:dehydrogenase quinone-1 (NQO1) to alleviate H2O2-induced oxidative damage. Quercetin was better than kaempferol in increasing NQO1 activity and T-AOC. Quercetin extracted from saffron petals could induce NQO1 expression through regulating kelch-like ECH-associated protein-1/nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor-2 signaling pathway to protect B16 cells from oxidative damage. CONCLUSION: The content of kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside and quercetin-3-O-sophoroside was higher in saffron petals than in other parts of saffron. The kaempferol and quercetin obtained from saffron petals could enhance the activity of antioxidant enzyme NQO1 and T-AOC in B16 cells. This indicated that saffron petals, as a potential functional food, may prevent diseases caused by oxidative stress. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Experimental and simulation study of American saffron seed oil blended with diesel.

In a variety of industries, including transportation, agriculture, and manufacturing, diesel engines are often employed. Due of rising prices and environmental concerns, researchers examined whether biodiesels might replace diesel. The current study looks into American Saffron Oil's feasibility as a feedstock for biodiesel production. The transesterification technique is used to extract American saffron oil methyl este(ASOME), which is then examined for its physical and chemical properties in accordance with ASTM standards. Diesel fuel and American Saffron Oil methyl ester are mixed on a volume basis to create a variety of fuel blends, including B20, B40, and B60. The test results showed that the 20 % ASOME mix had better performance and reduced emissions. Also, utilizing DIESEL-RK simulation software, diesel engine tests are conducted for the B20, B40, and B60 under identical operating circumstances. Moreover, diesel engine testing for the B20, B40, and B60 are carried out using DIESEL-RK simulation software under comparable operating circumstances. Results of simulation software tests show improved engine performance and reduced pollutants. When experimental data is compared to DIESEL-RK modeling software, it is found that brake thermal efficiency increased by 5.7 % and emissions of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide decreased by 2.5 % and 14.3 %, respectively.

Assessing color stability of orthodontic esthetic wires in different staining solutions.

BACKGROUND: Esthetic orthodontic wires are preferred for their ease to fit in with natural tooth color, but their susceptibility to staining in the oral environment poses a concern. Various Coatings such as Teflon and Epoxy aim to enhance appearance and biocompatibility but may still result in discoloration. Understanding the color stability of these wires under different staining conditions is crucial for a better and enhanced treatment plan. OBJECTIVE: This study intended to assess the color stability of esthetic orthodontic wires under various staining solutions that are often used in daily life. METHOD: Color changes of Teflon and Epoxy-coated esthetic orthodontic wires were meticulously measured at baseline, 7, 14, and 21-day intervals utilizing the precise CIE Lab* color measurement system. A total of thirty-two samples of wires from each brand were prepared (n= 8/group) and immersed in staining solutions (coffee, tea, cola, and saffron). The color change within and between the groups was statistically evaluated (p< 0.05). RESULTS: Significant variations in color stability were observed across different staining solutions. Saffron emerged as the most potent agent, inducing the most pronounced color changes, whereas cola demonstrated the least impact. Furthermore, Epoxy-coated wires consistently exhibited superior color stability compared to their Teflon-coated counterparts across all staining solutions and time intervals. CONCLUSION: This study underlines the significance for orthodontists to consider staining agents' possible effects on orthodontic wires into account when selecting the orthodontic wires. The findings suggest that Epoxy-coated wires hold promise in mitigating discoloration issues during orthodontic therapy.

Prophylactic effects of supplementation of a combination of Lactobacillus lactis WHH2078 and saffron on depressive-like behaviors in mice exposed to chronic stress.

Depression is one of the most common psychiatric conditions worldwide, with an annual escalation in prevalence. The serotonin (5-Hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]) metabolism through the gut-brain axis has been revealed to be related to the development of depression. Our previous study demonstrated that Lactococcus lactis WHH2078 alleviated depression in mice by shaping the gut microbiome composition and 5-HT metabolism. However, little research has explored the synergistic effects of probiotics and natural mental health-improving products. In this study, three natural products (saffron, l-theanine, and phosphatidylserine), either individually or in combination, were orally administrated for 4 weeks in chronic restraint stress (CRS)-induced mice, and their depressive behaviors, hippocampal 5-HT, and serum corticosterone were assessed. Saffron demonstrated improvement of the depressive-like behaviors via multiple behavioral tests and reversed the declined concentration of 5-HT and increased concentration of corticosterone. Following an initial screening, saffron was chosen to be combined with WHH2078, referred to as WHHMOOD™. Furthermore, the effects of WHHMOOD were evaluated in mice with depressive-like behaviors. WHHMOOD reduced immobility time in the forced swimming test and tail suspension test, increased the time spent in the central area in open field test, and reduced the serum corticosterone level. Besides, WHHMOOD improved the CRS-induced gut microbial dysbiosis by reversing gut microbial diversity and the abundances of Ligilactobacillus, Candidatus Arthromitus, and Erysipelatoclostridium. Compared to WHH2078, WHHMOOD treatment significantly increased the travel distance and hippocampal 5-HT level in mice. In conclusion, WHHMOOD exhibited prophylactic effects on depressive-like in CRS mice, which may act as a promising agent for improving the symptoms of depression.

In vivo and in vitro effects of crocetin and its amide derivative on acrylamide-induced neurotoxicity.

Objective: Acrylamide (ACR) is a neurotoxic agent whose damage could be attenuated by antioxidants administration. Crocetin is a saffron-derived antioxidant that has neuroprotective effects. This study evaluates the protective effects of trans-sodium crocetinate (TSC) and its water-soluble derivative, Bis-N-(N-methylpyprazinyl) crocetinate (BMPC) against ACR neurotoxicity. Materials and Methods: PC12 cells were treated with TSC and BMPC (1.95, 3.9, 7.81, 15.62, 31.25, 62.5, 125, 250, 500, and 1000 µM) for 24 hr. ACR was then added at a concentration of 6.5 mM (IC50), and cell viability was assessed by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide. In the in vivo study, male Wistar rats were treated with ACR (50 mg/kg, intraperitoneal (i.p.)) for 11 days alone or in combination with TSC and BMPC (2.5, 5, and 10 mg/kg, i.p.) or vitamin E (200 IU/kg, i.p.). Motor impairments were then evaluated. The cerebral cortex of sacrificed rats was taken for the malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) levels measurement. Results: In vitro studies showed that TSC at a concentration of 7.81 µM and BMPC at concentrations of 3.9, 7.81, and 15.62 µM exhibited the lowest toxicity in acrylamide administration. In the in vivo study, pretreatment with 2.5, 5, and 10 mg/kg of TSC ameliorated behavioral impairments, but BMPC could not attenuate them. GSH and MDA were improved by 2.5, 5, and 10 mg/kg TSC and 2.5 mg/kg BMPC. Conclusion: TSC and BMPC administration improved behavioral index and oxidative stress injuries in Wistar rats exposed to ACR through MDA reduction and GSH content enhancement in the cerebral cortex.

Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry Coupled with Unsupervised Methods for Advanced Saffron Authenticity Screening.

Saffron, renowned for its aroma and flavor, is susceptible to adulteration due to its high value and demand. Current detection methods, including ISO standards, often fail to identify specific adulterants such as safflower or turmeric up to 20% (w/w). Therefore, the quest continues for robust screening methods using advanced techniques to tackle this persistent challenge of safeguarding saffron quality and authenticity. Advanced techniques such as time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS), with its molecular specificity and high sensitivity, offer promising solutions. Samples of pure saffron and saffron adulterated with safflower and turmeric at three inclusion levels (5%, 10%, and 20%) were analyzed without prior treatment. Spectral analysis revealed distinct signatures for pure saffron, safflower, and turmeric. Through principal component analysis (PCA), TOF-SIMS effectively discriminated between pure saffron and saffron adulterated with turmeric and safflower at different inclusion levels. The variation between the groups is attributed to the characteristic peaks of safflower and the amino group peaks and mineral peaks of saffron. Additionally, a study was conducted to demonstrate that semi-quantification of the level of safflower inclusion can be achieved from the normalized values of its characteristic peaks in the saffron matrix.

Distribution of Main Bioactive Compounds from Saffron Species as a Function of Infusion Temperature and Time in an Oil/Water System.

Most research on saffron has focused on its composition and beneficial effects, while the culinary perspective to enhance its gastronomic potential remains unexplored. This study aims to define the transfer of the main compounds responsible for color, flavor, and aromatic properties, evaluating three critical variables: temperature (60 °C, 80 °C and 100 °C), infusion time (ranging from 10 to 30 min), and the composition of the medium (water, oil, and water/oil). Samples were analyzed using the LC-QTOF MS/MS and ISO 3632-1:2011 methods. The major compounds were crocins, including trans-crocin and picrocrocin. Among the flavonoids, kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside stands out. Regarding extraction conditions, crocins, glycoside flavonoids, and picrocrocin were enhanced in water, the former in 100% water and at low temperatures, while picrocrocin proved to be the most stable compound with extraction favored at high temperatures. The variable with the greatest incidence of picrocrocin isolation seemed to be the concentration of water since water/oil compositions reported higher concentrations. Safranal and kaempferol were enriched in the oil phase and at lower temperatures. This study provides a chemical interpretation for the appropriate gastronomic use of saffron according to its versatility. Finally, the determination of safranal using the ISO method did not correlate with that obtained using chromatography.

Saffron as a Promising Therapy for Inflammatory Bowel Disease.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory illness of the gastrointestinal tract (GI), characterized by recurrent episodes of inflammation and tissue destruction. It affects an increasing number of individuals worldwide who suffer from Crohn's disease (CD) or ulcerative colitis (UC). Despite substantial advances in understanding the underlying causes of IBD, the available treatments remain restricted and are sometimes accompanied by severe consequences. Consequently, there is an urgent need to study alternate therapeutic options. This review assesses the present drugs, identifies their limitations, and proposes the use of saffron, a natural plant with great therapeutic potential based on preclinical and clinical investigations. Saffron has gained attention for its potential therapeutic benefits in treating various ailments due to its established bioactive compounds possessing antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. This review covers how saffron impacts the levels of calprotectin, an inflammatory marker, for various inflammatory responses in multiple diseases including IBD. Data from clinical trials were assessed to determine the efficacy and safety of using saffron to counter inflammation in multiple diseases. Studies have shown that saffron may protect against inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) through several mechanisms by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1ß, and IL-6), reducing oxidative stress through antioxidant effects, enhancing mucosal barrier function by upregulating tight junction proteins, and modulating the gut microbiota composition to promote beneficial bacteria while suppressing pathogenic ones; these combined actions contribute to its therapeutic potential in managing and alleviating the symptoms of IBD. This will enable future research endeavors and expedite the translation of saffron-based interventions into clinical practice as a valuable adjunctive therapy or a potential alternative to conventional treatments, thereby enhancing the quality of life for individuals suffering from inflammatory diseases including IBD.

Effect of Crocus sativus Extract Supplementation in the Metabolic Control of People with Diabetes Mellitus Type 1: A Double-Blind Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial.

Introduction-Background: Data from experimental trials show that Crocus sativus L. (saffron) is considered to improve glycemia, lipid profile, and blood pressure and reduce oxidative stress. So far, clinical trials have been conducted in individuals with metabolic syndrome and Diabetes Mellitus type 2 (DMT-2). The purpose of this study is to assess the effectiveness of saffron in individuals with Diabetes Mellitus type 1 (DMT-1). PATIENTS-METHODS: 61 individuals with DMT-1, mean age 48 years old (48.3 ± 14.6), 26 females (42.6%) were randomized to receive a new oral supplement in sachets containing probiotics, prebiotics, magnesium, and Crocus sativus L. extract or placebo containing probiotics, prebiotics and magnesium daily for 6 months. Glycemic control was assessed with a continuous glucose monitoring system and laboratory measurement of HbA1c and lipid profile was also examined. Blood pressure at baseline and end of intervention was also measured. Individuals were either on a continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion with an insulin pump or in multiple daily injection regimens. Diabetes distress and satiety were assessed through a questionnaire and body composition was assessed with bioelectrical impedance. RESULTS: At the end of the intervention, the two groups differed significantly only in serum triglycerides (p = 0.049). After 6 months of treatment, a significant reduction in the active group was observed in glycated hemoglobin (p = 0.046) and serum triglycerides (p = 0.021) compared to baseline. The other primary endpoints (glycemic control, lipid profile, blood pressure) did not differ within the groups from baseline to end of intervention, and there was no significant difference between the two groups. Diabetes distress score improved significantly only in the active group (p = 0.044), suggesting an overall improvement in diabetes disease burden in these individuals but that was not significant enough between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: A probiotic supplement with saffron extract improves serum triglycerides in well-controlled people with DMT-1 and may potentially be a valuable adjunct for enhancing glycemic control.

Tobacco rattle virus-based virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) as an aid for functional genomics in Saffron (Crocus sativus L.).

Several limitations in genetic engineering interventions in saffron exist, hindering the development of genetically modified varieties and the widespread application of genetic engineering in this crop. Lack of genome sequence information, the complexity of genetic makeup, and lack of well-established genetic transformation protocols limit its in planta functional validation of genes that would eventually lead toward crop optimization. In this study, we demonstrate agro infiltration in leaves of adult plants and whole corm before sprouting are suitable for transient gene silencing in saffron using Tobacco Rattle Virus (TRV) based virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) targeting phytoene desaturase (PDS). Silencing of PDS resulted in bleached phenotype in leaves in both methods. TRV-mediated VIGS could be attained in saffron leaves and corms, providing an opportunity for functional genomics studies in this expensive spice crop. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-024-01459-0.