Mechanism and Priority of Botulinum Neurotoxin A versus Sacral Neuromodulation for Refractory Overactive Bladder: A Review.

BACKGROUND: The treatment of common overactive bladder (OAB) has reached a consensus, but there is not a clear answer to the treatment of refractory OAB (ROAB). ROAB is defined as nonresponsive to treatment with behavioural and oral therapies. The disease can influence the physical and mental health of patients, cause poor quality of life, and create an urgent socio-economic burden. With the advancement of medical treatment, the treatment of OAB has improved significantly in the last 2 decades, especially ROAB, by the usage of botulinum neurotoxin A (BoNT-A) and sacral neuromodulation (SNM). Many studies have demonstrated their effectiveness and safety. However, which therapy is the optimal method remains unclear for patients with ROAB, and the exact mechanism involved in the procedures is still unknown. SUMMARY: This review is to clarify the mechanisms, advantages, and disadvantages of SNM and BoNT-A in treatment of ROAB, and determine whether there is an order effect of SNM and BoNT-A in managing ROAB. Key Messages: BoNT-A and SNM mainly act on the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system, respectively. But BoNT-A and SNM may partly act on the central and peripheral nervous systems, separately. SNM may be a better choice than BoNT-A in the long time. At the same time, BoNT-A and SNM can treat the ROAB as the first and next steps, and the sequence of both would not affect the effectiveness of each other.

Ergonomic Recommendations in Ultrasound-Guided Botulinum Neurotoxin Chemodenervation for Spasticity: An International Expert Group Opinion.

Ultrasound (US)-guided botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) injections are becoming a mainstay in the treatment of muscle spasticity in upper motor neuron syndromes. As a result, there has been a commensurate increase in US-guided BoNT injection for spasticity training courses. However, many of these courses do not emphasize the importance of ergonomics. This paper aims to highlight the importance of ultrasound ergonomics and presents ergonomic recommendations to optimize US-guided BoNT injection techniques in spasticity management. Expert consensus opinion of 11 physicians (4 different continents; representing 8 countries, with an average of 12.6 years of practice using US guidance for BoNT chemodenervation (range 3 to 22 years)). A search using PubMed, College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia database, EMbase was conducted and found no publications relating the importance of ergonomics in US-guided chemodenervation. Therefore, recommendations and consensus discussions were generated from the distribution of a 20-question survey to a panel of 11 ultrasound experts. All 11 surveyed physicians considered ergonomics to be important in reducing physician injury. There was complete agreement that physician positioning was important; 91% agreement that patient positioning was important; and 82% that ultrasound machine positioning was important. Factors that did not reach our 80% threshold for consensus were further discussed. Four categories were identified as being important when implementing ultrasound ergonomics for BoNT chemodenervation for spasticity; workstation, physician, patient and visual ergonomics. Optimizing ergonomics is paramount when performing US-guided BoNT chemodenervation for spasticity management. This includes proper preparation of the workspace and allowing for sufficient pre-injection time to optimally position both the patient and the physician. Lack of awareness of ergonomics for US-guided BoNT chemodenervation for spasticity may lead to suboptimal patient outcomes, increase work-related injuries, and patient discomfort. We propose key elements for optimal positioning of physicians and patients, as well as the optimal setup of the workspace and provide clinical pearls in visual identification of spastic muscles for chemodenervation.

Effective Treatment of Neurological Symptoms with Normal Doses of Botulinum Neurotoxin in Wilson's Disease: Six Cases and Literature Review.

BACKGROUND: Recent cell-based and animal experiments have demonstrated an effective reduction in botulinum neurotoxin A (BoNT/A) by copper. AIM: We aimed to analyze whether the successful symptomatic BoNT/A treatment of patients with Wilson's disease (WD) corresponds with unusually high doses per session. METHODS: Among the 156 WD patients regularly seen at the outpatient department of the university hospital in Düsseldorf (Germany), only 6 patients had been treated with BoNT/A during the past 5 years. The laboratory findings, indications for BoNT treatment, preparations, and doses per session were extracted retrospectively from the charts. These parameters were compared with those of 13 other patients described in the literature. RESULTS: BoNT/A injection therapy is a rare (<4%) symptomatic treatment in WD, only necessary in exceptional cases, and is often applied only transiently. In those cases for which dose information was available, the dose per session and indication appear to be within usual limits. CONCLUSION: Despite the evidence that copper can interfere with the botulinum toxin in preclinical models, patients with WD do not require higher doses of the toxin than other patients with dystonia.

The Five-Year Prospective Study of Quality of Life in Hemifacial Spasm Treated with Abo-Botulinum Toxin A.

This study aimed to determine the long-term quality of life (QoL) in hemifacial spasm (HFS) patients after treating with Abo-botulinum toxin A (Abo-BTX). The study assessed the disease-specific QoL (hemifacial spasm questionnaire 30 items; HFS 30), the involuntary movements (abnormal involuntary movement scale; AIMS), general health QoL (Medical Outcomes 36-Item Short Form Health Survey; SF-36), and Depression (the Center of Epidemiologic Studies-Depression questionnaire; CES-D). A total of 74 HFS patients were enrolled from 2012 to 2017. The disease-specific QoL; involuntary movements; and the general health domain of SF 36 were significantly improved after injections of Abo-BTX A in the first few years (p < 0.04), but significantly decreased at the fifth year of treatment without significant clinical resistance observed (p < 0.001). Only the general health domain of SF 36 showed persistent improvement over five years (p = 0.02). In summary, Abo-BTX A can improved quality of life in the first few years; however only the general health domain of SF-36 showed significant improvement over five years (p = 0.02). No clinical resistance was observed.

Therapeutic Applications of Botulinum Neurotoxin for Autonomic Symptoms in Parkinson's Disease: An Updated Review.

Parkinson's disease is the most common age-related motoric neurodegenerative disease. In addition to the cardinal motor symptoms of tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability, there are numerous non-motor symptoms as well. Among the non-motor symptoms, autonomic nervous system dysfunction is common. Autonomic symptoms associated with Parkinson's disease include sialorrhea, hyperhidrosis, gastrointestinal dysfunction, and urinary dysfunction. Botulinum neurotoxin has been shown to potentially improve these autonomic symptoms. In this review, the varied uses of botulinum neurotoxin for autonomic dysfunction in Parkinson's disease are discussed. This review also includes discussion of some additional indications for the use of botulinum neurotoxin in Parkinson's disease, including pain.

BoNT-A for Post-Stroke Spasticity: Guidance on Unmet Clinical Needs from a Delphi Panel Approach.

There is extensive literature supporting the efficacy of botulinum toxin (BoNT-A) for the treatment of post-stroke spasticity, however, there remain gaps in the routine management of patients with post-stroke spasticity. A panel of 21 Italian experts was selected to participate in this web-based survey Delphi process to provide guidance that can support clinicians in the decision-making process. There was a broad consensus among physicians that BoNT-A intervention should be administered as soon as the spasticity interferes with the patients' clinical condition. Patients monitoring is needed over time, a follow-up of 4-6 weeks is considered necessary. Furthermore, physicians agreed that treatment should be offered irrespective of the duration of the spasticity. The Delphi consensus also stressed the importance of patient-centered goals in order to satisfy the clinical needs of the patient regardless of time of onset or duration of spasticity. The findings arising from this Delphi process provide insights into the unmet needs in managing post-stroke spasticity from the clinician's perspective and provides guidance for physicians for the utilization of BoNT-A for the treatment of post-stroke spasticity in daily practice.

Long-term efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin treatment for cervical dystonia: a critical reappraisal.

Introduction: Botulinum toxin (BoNT) injections represent the gold standard treatment for cervical dystonia (CD). Different types of BoNT have been used for the treatment of CD, but only two serotypes, BoNT type A (BoNT-A) and type B (BoNT-B), have been approved by regulatory agencies. Efficacy and safety of BoNT have been well documented by many short-term studies, but the longterm effects have been investigated only relatively recently.Areas covered: In the present review, we aimed to critically reappraise the existing evidence on the long-term efficacy and safety of BoNT treatment in CD. The examined studies mainly explored BoNT-A serotypes. Only a few studies examined the long-term effects of BoNT-B serotypes, and only one head-to-head comparison between BoNT-A and BoNT-B was found. BoNT was consistently reported to be an effective and safe treatment for CD patients, with good outcomes and a few adverse events in the long-term. However about a third of patients still drop out from the treatment during a long-term follow-up.Expert opinion: We conclude that BoNT is safe and effective in the long-term treatment of patients with CD. Additional studies are needed to further explore patients real-life experiences and perspectives to better understand the long-term outcomes and reasons for discontinuation of treatment.

Developing a Consistent, Reproducible Botulinum Toxin Type A Dosing Method for Upper Limb Tremor by Kinematic Analysis.

Botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A) injection patterns customized to each patient's unique tremor characteristics produce better efficacy and lower adverse effects compared to the fixed-muscle-fixed-dose approach for Essential Tremor (ET) and Parkinson's disease (PD) tremor therapy. This article outlined how a kinematic-based dosing method to standardize and customize BoNT-A injections for tremors was developed. Seven ET and eight PD participants with significant tremor reduction and minimal perceived weakness using optimized BoNT-A injections determined by clinical and kinematic guidance were retrospectively selected to develop the kinematic-based dosing method. BoNT-A dosages allocated per joint were paired to baseline tremor amplitudes per joint. The final kinematic-based dosing method was prospectively utilized to validate BoNT-A injection pattern selection without clinical/visual assessments in 31 ET and 47 PD participants with debilitating arm tremors (totaling 122 unique tremor patterns). Whole-arm kinematic tremor analysis was performed at baseline and 6-weeks post-injection. Correlation and linear regression analyses between baseline tremor amplitudes and the change in tremor amplitude 6-weeks post-injection, with BoNT-A dosages per joint, were performed. Injection patterns determined using clinical assessment and interpretation of kinematics produced significant associations between baseline tremor amplitudes and optimized BoNT-A dosages in all joints. The change in elbow tremor was only significantly associated with the elbow total dose as the change in the wrist and shoulder tremor amplitudes were not significantly associated with the wrist and shoulder dosages from the selected 15 ET and PD participants. Using the kinematic-based dosing method, significant associations between baseline tremor amplitudes and the change (6-weeks post-first treatment) in tremor at each joint with BoNT-A dosages for all joints was observed in all 78 ET and PD participants. The kinematic-based dosing method provided consistency in dose selection and subsequent tremor reduction and can be used to standardize tremor assessments for whole-arm tremor treatment planning.

Botulinum Neurotoxin Injections in Childhood Opisthotonus.

Opisthotonus refers to abnormal axial extension and arching of the trunk produced by excessive contractions of the paraspinal muscles. In childhood, the abnormal posture is most often related to dystonia in the setting of hypoxic injury or a number of other acquired and genetic etiologies. The condition is often painful, interferes with ambulation and quality of life, and is challenging to treat. Therapeutic options include oral benzodiazepines, oral and intrathecal baclofen, botulinum neurotoxin injections, and deep brain stimulation. Management of opisthotonus within the pediatric population has not been systematically reviewed. Here, we describe a series of seven children who presented to our institution with opisthotonus in whom symptom relief was achieved following administration of botulinum neurotoxin injections.

Use of AbobotulinumtoxinA for Cosmetic Treatments in the Neck, and Middle and Lower Areas of the Face: A Systematic Review.

AbobotulinumtoxinA (aboBoNT-A) has been used for various cosmetic purposes, including minimization of moderate to severe lines, or other cosmetic indications, in the face and neck. We carried out a systematic review to identify all relevant evidence on the treatment approaches and outcomes of aboBoNT-A as a cosmetic treatment of the middle and lower areas of the face, and the neck. Embase, MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, congress proceedings and review bibliographies were searched for relevant studies. Identified articles were screened against pre-specified eligibility criteria. Of 560 unique articles identified, 10 were included for data extraction (three observational studies, 1 randomized controlled trial [with two articles] and five non-randomized trials). The articles provided data on gummy/asymmetric smile (2), marionette lines (5), masseter muscle volume (2), nasal wrinkles (2), perioral wrinkles (3) and the platysma muscle (4). All articles reporting on efficacy of aboBoNT-A demonstrated positive results, including reduction of wrinkles (5), reduction of masseter muscle (2) and degree of gummy smile (1) compared with before treatment. No serious adverse events were reported and patient satisfaction was high. In conclusion, positive findings support further research of aboBoNT-A for the middle and lower areas of the face, and in the neck, which are largely unapproved indications.

Botulinum Toxin Type A to Improve Facial Symmetry in Facial Palsy: A Practical Guideline and Clinical Experience.

Unilateral peripheral facial nerve palsy jeopardizes quality of life, rendering psychological consequences such as low self-esteem, social isolation, anxiety, and depression. Among therapeutical approaches, use of Botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A) on the nonparalyzed side has shown promising results and improvement of quality of life. Nevertheless, the correct technique is paramount, since over-injection of the muscles can result in lack of function, leading to a "paralyzed" appearance, and even worse, functional incompetence, which may cause greater distress to patients. Therefore, the objective of this article is to provide a practical guideline for botulinum toxin use in facial palsy. To this aim, adequate patient assessment, BoNT-A choice, injection plan and dosage, and injection techniques are covered.

Transconjunctival versus Transcutaneous Injection of Botulinum Toxin into the Lacrimal Gland to Reduce Lacrimal Production: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

The purpose of this study was to determine and compare the effects between injecting botulinum toxin A (BTX-A) transconjunctivally into the palpebral lobe and transcutaneously into the orbital lobe of the lacrimal gland in patients with epiphora due to lacrimal outflow obstruction. This randomized controlled study included 53 eyes of 31 patients with unilateral or bilateral epiphora. Patients were randomly allocated to receive an injection of BTX-A (3 units) either transconjunctivally (n = 15, 25 eyes) or transcutaneously (n = 16, 28 eyes). For objective assessments, the tear meniscus height and Schirmer's I test with topical anesthesia were measured at baseline and after 2, 6, 12, and 24 weeks of follow-up. Subjective evaluations were performed using the Munk score. After BTX-A injection, patients in both groups experienced significant objective and subjective reductions in tearing at all follow-up times compared to pre-injection (success rate 86.8%), and the effect lasted for a mean duration of 5.63 months. The two delivery routes showed similar clinical effectiveness for a single injected dose of BTX-A. In conclusion, injecting BTX-A via either a transconjunctival or transcutaneous route helps to reduce normal tear production and results in significant improvements in the symptoms in patients with epiphora.

Use of Botulinum Neurotoxin in Parkinson's Disease: A Critical Appraisal.

For well over 30 years, the botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) has been used for a large number of indications, some of which however have not been licensed. Admittedly, approval varies in many countries and this permits a large spectrum for evaluation. Thus, BoNT is used for patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and other Parkinson's syndromes (PS) in varying degrees of frequency. We have to distinguish between (1) indications that are either approved or (2) those not approved, (3) indications that might be a result of PS and (4) finally those which appear independent of PS. The most important indication for BoNT in PS patients is probably sialorrhea, for which approval has been granted in the majority of countries. Cervical dystonia is a frequent symptom in PS, with anterocollis as a specific entity. A further indication is blepharospasm in the different forms, especially the inhibition of eyelid opening in atypical PS. The use of BoNT in cases of camptocormia, the Pisa syndrome and neck rigidity is still a matter of debate. In dystonia of the extremities BoNT can be recommended, especially in dystonia of the feet. One well-known indication, for which however sufficient data are still lacking, involves treating tremor with BoNT. As to autonomic symptoms: Focal hyperhidrosis and detrusor hyperactivity can be mentioned, in this last case BoNT has already been approved. A number of further but rare indications such as freezing-of-gait, dyskinesia, and dysphagia will be discussed and evaluated.

The effect of botulinum toxin on ureteral inflammation.

PURPOSE: The impact of onabotulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A) on bladder afferent nerve pathways and chemosensory functions is an active area of investigation. There may be a role for BoNT-A in disorders of the ureter; however, no histologic studies have assessed the effects of BoNT-A on ureteral tissue. Our objective was to develop an animal model of ureteral inflammation and determine the impact of ureteral BoNT-A instillation on known mechanisms of inflammation. METHODS: The safety and feasibility of a novel animal model of ureteral inflammation was assessed. Through open cystotomy, the effect of ureteral BoNT-A instillation on inflammation was determined through H&E, masson's trichrome, Ki-67 stain, and prostaglandin E (PGE) synthase expression, a known marker of pain and inflammation in ureteral tissue. Urothelial microstructure was assessed using electron microscopy and standard histologic techniques. RESULTS: All experiments were carried to completion, and no systemic signs of botulinum toxicity were seen. BoNT-A exposure was associated with a decrease in PGE synthase expression in a dose-dependent fashion. BoNT-A exposure was not found to impact collagen deposition or cell proliferation. Disruption of tight junctions between urothelial cells was observed under conditions of inflammation. CONCLUSION: We describe the feasibility of a novel in vivo model of ureteral inflammation and report the first histologic study of the effects of BoNT-A on the ureter. Preliminary findings show that BoNT-A attenuates ureteral PGE synthase expression under conditions of inflammation. The application of BoNT-A may provide anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects in the context of ureteral disorders.

Management of Anterocapitis and Anterocollis: A Novel Ultrasound Guided Approach Combined with Electromyography for Botulinum Toxin Injection of Longus Colli and Longus Capitis.

Chemodenervation of cervical musculature using botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is established as the gold standard or treatment of choice for management of Cervical Dystonia (CD). The success of BoNT procedures is measured by improved symptomology while minimizing side effects and is dependent upon many factors including: clinical pattern recognition, identifying contributory muscles, BoNT dosage, and locating and safely injecting target muscles. In patients with CD, treatment of anterocollis (forward flexion of the neck) and anterocaput (anterocapitis) (forward flexion of the head) are inarguably challenging. The longus Colli (LoCol) and longus capitis (LoCap) muscles, two deep cervical spine and head flexor muscles, frequently contribute to these patterns. Localizing and safely injecting these muscles is particularly challenging owing to their deep location and the complex regional anatomy which includes critical neurovascular and other structures. Ultrasound (US) guidance provides direct visualization of the LoCol, LoCap, other cervical muscles and adjacent structures reducing the risks and side effects while improving the clinical outcome of BoNT for these conditions. The addition of electromyography (EMG) provides confirmation of muscle activity within the target muscle. Within this manuscript, we present a technical description of a novel US guided approach (combined with EMG) for BoNT injection into the LoCol and LoCap muscles for the management of anterocollis and anterocaput in patients with CD.

Comprehensive Use of Dynamic Electrical Neurostimulation and Botulinum Toxin Therapy in Patients with Post-Stroke Spasticity.

BACKGROUND: Acute cerebrovascular accident poses a threat to the health of the nation. Dynamic electric neurostimulation decreases the excitability of the receptor apparatus, optimize microcirculatory processes, analgesic and antispasmodic effects. METHODS: This article discusses the rehabilitation of 96 men and women with post-stroke spasticity, mean age of 60.51 ± 4.9 years, in the early recovery period after ischemic stroke, randomized into 4 equal groups: Group 1 received botulinum toxin therapy in combination with dynamic electric neurostimulation and basic therapy, including massage and therapeutic exercises; Group 2 -botulinum toxin therapy and basic therapy; Group 3 - dynamic electric neurostimulation and basic therapy; Group 4 - basic therapy only. Study methods included the use of the Modified Asworth Scale to assess spasticity, the Rivemead Motor Assessment test, and goniometry to assess the range of joint movements. RESULTS: During a three-week observation, it was found that the inclusion of botulinum toxin therapy and dynamic electrical neurostimulation in the standard therapy of post-stroke spasticity in patients after ischemic stroke in the early recovery period contributed to patients' recovery. CONCLUSIONS: Botulinum toxin therapy and dynamic electrical neurostimulation contributed to a more significant decrease in spasticity in the proximal and distal parts of the paretic upper extremity. It is also increased the amplitude of voluntary movements in the affected shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints, compared to the separate use of botulinum toxin therapy and dynamic electric neurostimulation as part of basic rehabilitation.

Safety and Stability of Pulmonary Function in Patients with Decreased Respiratory Function Treated for Spasticity with OnabotulinumtoxinA.

Two randomized, placebo-controlled studies evaluated the pulmonary function safety of onabotulinumtoxinA (onabotA) for treatment of upper and/or lower limb spasticity. Patients with stable baseline respiratory status received one or two treatments with placebo, 240 U, or 360 U of onabotA. Pulmonary function tests, adverse events, and efficacy were measured at least every 6 weeks for 18 weeks (Study 1) or 30 weeks (Study 2). Study 1 enrolled 109 patients (n = 36-37/group) and Study 2 enrolled 155 patients (n = 48-54/group). Mean baseline forced vital capacity (FVC) was 76-78% of predicted per group in Study 1 and 71% of predicted per group in Study 2. In Study 1, change from baseline FVC values were significantly (p < 0.05) decreased vs. placebo at weeks 3 (240 U -57 mL vs. placebo +110 mL) and 12 (360 U -6 mL vs. +167 mL placebo). In Study 2, change from baseline FVC values were significantly decreased in the 360 U group vs. placebo at weeks 6 (-78 mL vs. +49 mL placebo), 13 (-60 mL vs. +119 mL placebo), 18 (-128 mL vs. +80 mL placebo), and 24 (-82 mL vs. +149 mL placebo). Individual pulmonary function-related adverse events were not correlated with PFT decreases. The most frequent pulmonary-related adverse events were nasopharyngitis (Study 1) and upper respiratory tract infection (Study 2). Ashworth scores were significantly improved at multiple time points in both studies. Injection of onabotA for spasticity in patients with decreased pulmonary function, at single and repeated doses of up to 360 U, was associated with small but statistically significant decreases in FVC or forced expiratory volume 1 s (FEV1) (>12% and 200 mL) that were subclinical and not correlated with any adverse clinical pulmonary events.

Jitter Evaluation in Distant and Adjacent Muscles after Botulinum Neurotoxin Type A Injection in 78 Cases.

To study the jitter parameters in the distant (DM) and the adjacent muscle (AM) after botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT/A) injection in 78 patients, jitter was measured by voluntary activation in DM (n = 43), and in AM (n = 35). Patients were receiving BoNT/A injections as a treatment for movement disorders. Mean age 65.1 years (DM) and 61.9 years (AM). The mean jitter was abnormal in 13.9% (maximum 41.4 µs) of DM, and 40% (maximum 43.7 µs) of AM. Impulse blocking was sparse. We found no correlation of the mean jitter to age, BoNT/A most recent injection (days/units), number of muscles injected, total BoNT/A units summated, number of total BoNT/A sessions, beta-blockers/calcium channel blockers use, and cases with local spread symptoms such as eyelid drop/difficulty swallowing. Maximum mean jitter (41.4/43.7 µs) for DM/AM occurred 61 and 131 days since the most recent BoNT/A, respectively. The far abnormal mean jitter (32.6/36.9 µs) occurred 229 and 313 days since the most recent BoNT/A. We suggested that jitter measurement can be done after BoNT/A in a given muscle other than the injected one, after 8 (DM) and 11 (AM) months, with reference >33 µs and >37 µs, respectively.

Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Treatment with Botulinum Toxin on Sleep Quality in Stroke-Related Spasticity.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Botulinum toxin (BoNT) is a commonly used agent in the treatment of stroke-related spasticity. Sleep disorders can often be seen as a comorbidity or complication in stroke patients. Based on the data that spasticity is associated with sleep disorders, in this study, we aimed to evaluate whether sleep quality has changed in patients with stroke treated with BoNT. METHODS: Thirty five (17 female / 18 male) stroke patients with gastrocnemius and / or soleus spasticity were included in this observational cross-sectional study. In clinical evaluation before and three months after BoNT injection; for spasticity evaluation modified Ashworth scale (MAS), pain assessment visual analog scale (VAS), functional evaluation; passive joint range of motion (ROM) measurement, functional independence measurement (FIM), lower limb Brunstrom staging, life quality assessment short form-36 (SF-36) quality of life scale, and sleep quality assessment Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI) scales were used. RESULTS: After the BoNT injection, there was a statistically significant decrease in MAS and VAS scores, a significant increase in passive ROM measurements, FIM, lower limb Brunstrom staging, and SF-36 physical function sub parameter. There was also a significant decrease in PSQI scores. Before and after treatment, there was no correlation found between PSQI values with pain and spasticity. However, there was a weak negative correlation between post-treatment PSQI values, passive ROM, SF-36 physical function and SF-36 physical role sub parameters (respectively: r: -0.335 p: 0.049, r: -0.364, 0.032, r: -0.404, p: 0.016). Conlusion: The results of our study suggest that BoNT, which is frequently used in the treatment of spasticity in stroke patients, has positive effects on sleep quality.

Introduction to the Toxins Special Issue on Botulinum Neurotoxins in the Nervous System: Future Challenges for Novel Indications.

Botulinum toxins (BoNTs) are a true wonder of nature [...].