Dose-response relationship of tryptophan with large neutral amino acids, and its impact on physiological responses in the chick model.

Tryptophan (Trp) has been associated with the regulation of several behavioral and physiological processes, through stimulation of serotonergic activity. Tryptophan utilization at the metabolic level is influenced by the competitive carrier system it shares with large neutral amino acids (LNAA). This study was carried out using meat-type chicken as a model, to investigate the dose response effects of Trp/LNAA on fear response (tonic immobility; TI) and hormonal responses, including corticosterone (CORT), serotonin (5-HT), triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). A total of 12 cages (48 birds) were assigned to each of the six experimental groups at 29-42 days of age. Experimental diets were formulated to have incremental levels of Trp/LNAA (0.025, 0.030, 0.035, 0.040, 0.045, and 0.050). The results revealed that, Trp/NAA had no significant effect on growth performance and TI of the birds. However, elevation of Trp/LNAA was concurred with a linear reduction in CORT (P < .0001, r2 = 0.819) and linear increases in 5-HT (P < .0001, r2 = 0.945), T3 (P = .0003, r2 = 0.403) and T4 (P < .0001, r2 = 0.937) levels. In conclusion, the results from the current study demonstrated that, although incremental levels of Trp/LNAA did not affect bird growth performance or fearfulness, it increased 5-HT, T3 and T4, and decreased CORT levels in a linear dose-dependent manner. Manipulation of Trp feeding levels could be applied to manage stressful conditions in birds.

Effect of α-Methyl versus α-Hydrogen Substitution on Brain Availability and Tumor Imaging Properties of Heptanoic [F-18]Fluoroalkyl Amino Acids for Positron Emission Tomography (PET).

Two [(18)F]fluoroalkyl substituted amino acids differing only by the presence or absence of a methyl group on the α-carbon, (S)-2-amino-7-[(18)F]fluoro-2-methylheptanoic acid ((S)-[(18)F]FAMHep, (S)-[(18)F]14) and (S)-2-amino-7-[(18)F]fluoroheptanoic acid ((S)-[(18)F]FAHep, (S)-[(18)F]15), were developed for brain tumor imaging and compared to the well-established system L amino acid tracer, O-(2-[(18)F]fluoroethyl)-l-tyrosine ([(18)F]FET), in the delayed brain tumor (DBT) mouse model of high-grade glioma. Cell uptake, biodistribution, and PET/CT imaging studies showed differences in amino acid transport of these tracer by DBT cells. Recognition of (S)-[(18)F]15 but not (S)-[(18)F]14 by system L amino acid transporters led to approximately 8-10-fold higher uptake of the α-hydrogen substituted analogue (S)-[(18)F]15 in normal brain. (S)-[(18)F]15 had imaging properties similar to those of (S)-[(18)F]FET in the DBT tumor model while (S)-[(18)F]14 afforded higher tumor to brain ratios due to much lower uptake by normal brain. These results have important implications for the future development of α-alkyl and α,α-dialkyl substituted amino acids for brain tumor imaging.

Possible role of a histidine residue in the substrate specificity of yeast d-aspartate oxidase.

D-Aspartate oxidase (DDO) catalyzes the oxidative deamination of acidic D-amino acids, whereas neutral and basic D-amino acids are substrates of D-amino acid oxidase (DAO). DDO of the yeast Cryptococcus humicola (ChDDO) has much higher substrate specificity to D-aspartate, but the structural features that confer this specificity have not been elucidated. A three-dimensional model of ChDDO suggested that a histidine residue (His56) in the active site might be involved in the unique substrate specificity, possibly through the interaction with the substrate side chain in the active site. His56 mutants with several different amino acid residues (H56A, H56D, H56F, H56K and H56N) exhibited no significant activity toward acidic D-amino acids, but H56A and H56N mutants gained the ability to utilize neutral D-amino acids as substrates, such as D-methionine, D-phenylalanine and D-glutamine, showing the conversion of ChDDO to DAO by these mutations. This conversion was also demonstrated by the sensitivity of these mutants to competitive inhibitors of DAO. These results and kinetic properties of the mutants show that His56 is involved in the substrate specificity of ChDDO and possibly plays a role in the higher substrate specificity toward D-aspartate.

Synthesis, Radiolabeling, and Biological Evaluation of (R)- and (S)-2-Amino-5-[(18)F]fluoro-2-methylpentanoic Acid ((R)-, (S)-[(18)F]FAMPe) as Potential Positron Emission Tomography Tracers for Brain Tumors.

A novel (18)F-labeled α,α-disubstituted amino acid-based tracer, 2-amino-5-[(18)F]fluoro-2-methylpentanoic acid ([(18)F]FAMPe), has been developed for brain tumor imaging with a longer alkyl side chain than previously reported compounds to increase brain availability via system L amino acid transport. Both enantiomers of [(18)F]FAMPe were obtained in good radiochemical yield (24-52% n = 8) and high radiochemical purity (>99%). In vitro uptake assays in mouse DBT gliomas cells revealed that (S)-[(18)F]FAMPe enters cells partly via sodium-independent system L transporters and also via other nonsystem A transport systems including transporters that recognize glutamine. Biodistribution and small animal PET/CT studies in the mouse DBT model of glioblastoma showed that both (R)- and (S)-[(18)F]FAMPe have good tumor imaging properties with the (S)-enantiomer providing higher tumor uptake and tumor to brain ratios. Comparison of the SUVs showed that (S)-[(18)F]FAMPe had higher tumor to brain ratios compared to (S)-[(18)F]FET, a well-established system L substrate.

Eight-membered ring-containing jadomycins: implications for non-enzymatic natural products biosynthesis.

Jadomycin Oct (1) was isolated from Streptomyces venezuelae ISP5230 and characterized as a structurally unique eight-membered l-ornithine ring-containing jadomycin. The structure was elucidated through the semisynthetic derivatization of starting material via chemoselective acylation of the l-ornithine α-amino group using activated succinimidyl esters. Incorporation of 5-aminovaleric acid led to jadomycin AVA, a second eight-membered ring-containing jadomycin. These natural products illustrate the structural diversity permissible from a non-enzymatic step within a biosynthetic pathway and exemplifies the potential for discovery of novel scaffolds.

Stereoselective synthesis of (2S,3R)-α-hydroxy-ß-amino acids (AHBAs): valinoctin A, (2S,3R)-3-amino-2-hydroxydecanoic acid, and a fluorescent-labeled (2S,3R)-AHBA.

We report the stereoselective synthesis of an alkynyl side-chain containing (2S,3R)-α-hydroxy-ß-amino acid ((2S,3R)-AHBA) analogues. The Cu(I)-catalyzed reactions of (R)-glyceraldehyde acetonide and dibenzylamine with terminal alkynes provided the corresponding (2S,3R)-α-amino alcohols with good-to-excellent diastereoselectivity. Subsequent chemical transformations provided easy access to the alkynyl side-chain containing (2S,3R)-AHBAs. The utility of the methodology was demonstrated by the stereoselective synthesis of valinoctin A and (2S,3R)-3-amino-2-hydroxydecanoic acid ((2S,3R)-AHDA). Photophysical properties and cell permeability of a pyrene-labeled (2S,3R)-AHBA were also determined.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of copper-64 radiolabeled [DUPA-6-Ahx-(NODAGA)-5-Ava-BBN(7-14)NH2], a novel bivalent targeting vector having affinity for two distinct biomarkers (GRPr/PSMA) of prostate cancer.

UNLABELLED: Gastrin-releasing peptide receptors (GRPr) and prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) are two identifying biomarkers expressed in very high numbers on prostate cancer cells and could serve as a useful tool for molecular targeting and diagnosis of disease via positron-emission tomography (PET). The aim of this study was to produce the multipurpose, bivalent [DUPA-6-Ahx-((64)Cu-NODAGA)-5-Ava-BBN(7-14)NH2] radioligand for prostate cancer imaging, where DUPA = (2-[3-(1,3-dicarboxypropyl)-ureido]pentanedioic acid), a small-molecule, PSMA-targeting probe, 6Ahx = 6-aminohexanoic acid, 5-Ava = 5-aminovaleric acid, NODAGA = [2-(4,7-biscarboxymethyl)-1,4,7-(triazonan-1-yl)pentanedioic acid] (a derivative of NOTA (1,4,7-triazacyclononane-1,4,7-triacetic acid)), and BBN(7-14)NH2 = bombesin, a GRPr-specific peptide targeting probe. METHODS: The PSMA/GRPr dual targeting ligand precursor [DUPA-6-Ahx-K-5-Ava-BBN(7-14)NH2], was synthesized by solid-phase and manual peptide synthesis, after which NODAGA was added via manual conjugation to the ε-amine of lysine (K). The new bivalent GRPr/PSMA targeting vector was purified by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), characterized by electrospray-ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), and metallated with (64)CuCl2 and (nat)CuCl2. The receptor binding affinity was evaluated in human, prostate, PC-3 (GRPr-positive) and LNCaP (PSMA-positive) cells and the tumor-targeting efficacy determined in severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) and athymic nude mice bearing PC-3 and LNCaP tumors. Whole-body maximum intensity microPET/CT images of PC-3/LNCaP tumor-bearing mice were obtained 18 h post-injection (p.i.). RESULTS: Competitive binding assays in PC-3 and LNCaP cells indicated high receptor binding affinity for the [DUPA-6-Ahx-((nat)Cu-NODAGA)-5-Ava-BBN(7-14)NH2] conjugate. MicroPET scintigraphy in PC-3/LNCaP tumor-bearing mice indicated that xenografted tumors were visible at 18h p.i. with collateral, background radiation also being observed in non-target tissue. CONCLUSIONS: DUPA-6-Ahx-((64)Cu-NODAGA)-5-Ava-BBN(7-14)NH2] targeting vector, as described herein, is the first example of a dual GRPr-/PSMA-targeting radioligand for molecular of imaging prostate tumors. Detailed in vitro studies and microPET molecular imaging investigations of [DUPA-6-Ahx-((64)Cu-NODAGA)-5-Ava-BBN(7-14)NH2 in tumor-bearing mice indicate that further studies are necessary to optimize uptake and retention of tracer in GRPr- and PSMA-positive tissues.

Undesired versus designed enzymatic cleavage of linkers for liver targeting.

A design for the selective release of drug molecules in the liver was tested, involving the attachment of a representative active agent by an ester linkage to various 2-substituted 5-aminovaleric acid carbamates. The anticipated pathway of carboxylesterase-1-mediated carbamate cleavage followed by lactamization and drug release was frustrated by unexpectedly high sensitivity of the ester linkage toward hydrolysis by carboxylesterase-2 and other microsomal components.

Asymmetric syntheses of APTO and AETD: the ß-amino acid fragments within microsclerodermins C, D, and E.

Efficient asymmetric syntheses of APTO and AETD, the highly functionalized ß-amino acid fragments within microsclerodermins C, D, and E, are reported. The conjugate addition of lithium (R)-N-benzyl-N-(α-methylbenzyl)amide to tert-butyl (E,E)-7-(triisopropylsilyloxy)hepta-2,4-dienoate and in situ enolate oxidation with (-)-camphorsulfonyloxaziridine, diastereoselective dihydroxylation of a 2,3-syn-γ,δ-unsaturated-α-hydroxy-ß-amino ester derivative under Donohoe conditions, and a Julia-Kocienski olefination were used as the key steps.

Large neutral amino acids: dietary effects on brain neurochemistry and function.

The ingestion of large neutral amino acids (LNAA), notably tryptophan, tyrosine and the branched-chain amino acids (BCAA), modifies tryptophan and tyrosine uptake into brain and their conversion to serotonin and catecholamines, respectively. The particular effect reflects the competitive nature of the transporter for LNAA at the blood-brain barrier. For example, raising blood tryptophan or tyrosine levels raises their uptake into brain, while raising blood BCAA levels lowers tryptophan and tyrosine uptake; serotonin and catecholamine synthesis in brain parallel the tryptophan and tyrosine changes. By changing blood LNAA levels, the ingestion of particular proteins causes surprisingly large variations in brain tryptophan uptake and serotonin synthesis, with minimal effects on tyrosine uptake and catecholamine synthesis. Such variations elicit predictable effects on mood, cognition and hormone secretion (prolactin, cortisol). The ingestion of mixtures of LNAA, particularly BCAA, lowers brain tryptophan uptake and serotonin synthesis. Though argued to improve physical performance by reducing serotonin function, such effects are generally considered modest at best. However, BCAA ingestion also lowers tyrosine uptake, and dopamine synthesis in brain. Increasing dopamine function in brain improves performance, suggesting that BCAA may fail to increase performance because dopamine is reduced. Conceivably, BCAA administered with tyrosine could prevent the decline in dopamine, while still eliciting a drop in serotonin. Such an LNAA mixture might thus prove an effective enhancer of physical performance. The thoughtful development and application of dietary proteins and LNAA mixtures may thus produce treatments with predictable and useful functional effects.

Amino acid uptake in arbuscular mycorrhizal plants.

We examined the extent to which arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi root improved the acquisition of simple organic nitrogen (ON) compounds by their host plants. In a greenhouse-based study, we used quantum dots (fluorescent nanoparticles) to assess uptake of each of the 20 proteinaceous amino acids by AM-colonized versus uncolonized plants. We found that AM colonization increased uptake of phenylalanine, lysine, asparagine, arginine, histidine, methionine, tryptophan, and cysteine; and reduced uptake of aspartic acid. Arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization had the greatest effect on uptake of amino acids that are relatively rare in proteins. In addition, AM fungi facilitated uptake of neutral and positively-charged amino acids more than negatively-charged amino acids. Overall, the AM fungi used in this study appeared to improve access by plants to a number of amino acids, but not necessarily those that are common or negatively-charged.

Solid-state NMR analyses reveal the structure dependence of the molecular dynamics for ω-amino acids.

The molecular dynamics of metabolites is structure dependent and vitally important for the interactive functions in their potential applications as natural materials. To understand the relationship between molecular structure and dynamics, the molecular motions of four structurally related ω-amino acids (ß-alanine, γ-aminobutyric acid, 5-aminovaleric acid, and 6-aminocaproic acid) were investigated by measuring their proton spin-lattice relaxation times (T(1), T(1ρ)) as a function of temperature (180-440 K). (13)C CPMAS NMR and DSC analyses were performed to obtain complementary information. All of these ω-amino acids showed no phase transition in the temperature range studied but had outstandingly long proton T(1) at 300 MHz and even at 20 MHz for the deuterated forms. The molecular dynamics of all these ω-amino acids were dominated by the reorientation motions of amino groups and backbone motions except in ß-alanine. The activation energies for amino group reorientations were positively correlated with the strength of hydrogen bonds involving these groups in the crystals and the carbon-chain lengths, whereas such energies for the backbone motions were inversely correlated with the carbon-chain lengths. These findings provided essential information for the molecular dynamics of ω-amino acids and demonstrated the combined solid-state NMR methods as a useful approach for understanding the structural dependence of molecular dynamics.

Determination of trace amino acids in human serum by a selective and sensitive pre-column derivatization method using HPLC-FLD-MS/MS and derivatization optimization by response surface methodology.

Analysis of trace amino acids (AA) in physiological fluids has received more attention, because the analysis of these compounds could provide fundamental and important information for medical, biological, and clinical researches. More accurate method for the determination of those compounds is highly desirable and valuable. In the present study, we developed a selective and sensitive method for trace AA determination in biological samples using 2-[2-(7H-dibenzo [a,g]carbazol-7-yl)-ethoxy] ethyl chloroformate (DBCEC) as labeling reagent by HPLC-FLD-MS/MS. Response surface methodology (RSM) was first employed to optimize the derivatization reaction between DBCEC and AA. Compared with traditional single-factor design, RSM was capable of lessening laborious, time and reagents consumption. The complete derivatization can be achieved within 6.3 min at room temperature. In conjunction with a gradient elution, a baseline resolution of 20 AA containing acidic, neutral, and basic AA was achieved on a reversed-phase Hypersil BDS C(18) column. This method showed excellent reproducibility and correlation coefficient, and offered the exciting detection limits of 0.19-1.17 fmol/µL. The developed method was successfully applied to determinate AA in human serum. The sensitive and prognostic index of serum AA for liver diseases has also been discussed.

ESI-MS investigation of solvent effects on the chiral recognition capacity of tartar emetic towards neutral side-chain amino acids.

The effect of solvent systems on previously-reported ESI-MS based proton-assisted enantioselective molecular recognition phenomena of tartar emetic, L-antimony(III)-tartrate, was evaluated. This was achieved by carrying out a series of competitive binding experiments using chiral selectors, bis(sodium) D- and -L-antimony(III)-tartrates with chiral selectands, neutral side-chain amino acid enantiomeric isotopomers of alanine (Ala), valine (Val), leucine (Leu) and phenylalanine (Phe), in three different solvent systems, ACN/H(2)O (75/25 v/v), H(2)O (100%) and H(2)O/MeOH (25/75 v/v). Observations from these experiments suggest that the effect of solvent systems on previously reported proton-assisted chiral recognition capacity of D,L-antimony(III)-tartrates is small, but not negligible. It was observed that an ACN/H(2)O (75/25 v/v) solvent system facilitates and enhances the chiral discrimination capacity of protonated {[D,L-Sb(2)-tar(2)][H]}(-) ionic species. Further, amino acid enantiomers showed a general trend of increasing selectivity order, Val ≤ Ala < Leu ≈ Phe towards the protonated {[D,L-Sb(2)-tar(2)][H]}(-) ionic species which was independent of the solvent system employed. The lack of enantioselective binding for {[D,L-Sb(2)-tar(2)]}(2-) ionic species was consistently recorded in respective mass spectra from all performed experiments, which suggests that ESI-friendly solvent systems have no effect and do not influence this phenomenon.

Pro-apoptotic activity of lipidic α-amino acids isolated from Protopalythoa variabilis.

Lipidic α-amino acids (LAAs) have been described as non-natural amino acids with long saturated or unsaturated aliphatic chains. In the continuing prospect to discover anticancer agents from marine sources, we have obtained a mixture of two cytotoxic LAAs (1a and 1b) from the zoanthid Protopalythoa variabilis. The anti-proliferative potential of 14 synthetic LAAs and 1a/1b were evaluated on four tumor cell lines (HCT-8, SF-295, MDA-MB-435, and HL-60). Five of the synthetic LAAs showed high percentage of tumor cell inhibition, while 1a/1b completely inhibited tumor cell growth. Additionally, apoptotic effects of 1a/1b were studied on HL-60 cell line. 1a/1b-treated cells showed apoptosis morphology, loss of mitochondrial potential, and DNA fragmentation.

The chemistry of escapin: identification and quantification of the components in the complex mixture generated by an L-amino acid oxidase in the defensive secretion of the sea snail Aplysia californica.

Escapin is an L-amino acid oxidase in the ink of a marine snail, the sea hare Aplysia californica, which oxidizes L-lysine (1) to produce a mixture of chemicals which is antipredatory and antimicrobial. The goal of our study was to determine the identity and relative abundance of the constituents of this mixture, using molecules generated enzymatically with escapin and also using products of organic syntheses. We examined this mixture under the natural range of pH values for ink-from approximately 5 at full strength to approximately 8 when fully diluted in sea water. The enzymatic reaction likely forms an equilibrium mixture containing the linear form alpha-keto-epsilon-aminocaproic acid (2), the cyclic imine Delta(1)-piperidine-2-carboxylic acid (3), the cyclic enamine Delta(2)-piperidine-2-carboxylic acid (4), possibly the linear enol 6-amino-2-hydroxy-hex-2-enoic acid (7), the alpha-dihydroxy acid 6-amino-2,2-dihydroxy-hexanoic acid (8), and the cyclic aminol 2-hydroxy-piperidine-2-carboxylic acid (9). Using NMR and mass spectroscopy, we show that 3 is the major component of this enzymatic product at any pH, but at more basic conditions, the equilibrium shifts to produce relatively more 4, and at acidic conditions, the equilibrium shifts to produce relatively more 2, 7, and/or 9. Studies of escapin's enzyme kinetics demonstrate that because of the high concentrations of escapin and L-lysine in the ink secretion, millimolar concentrations of 3, H(2)O(2), and ammonia are produced, and also lower concentrations of 2, 4, 7, and 9 as a result. We also show that reactions of this mixture with H(2)O(2) produce delta-aminovaleric acid (5) and delta-valerolactam (6), with 6 being the dominant component under the naturally acidic conditions of ink. Thus, the product of escapin's action on L-lysine contains an equilibrium mixture that is more complex than previously known for any L-amino acid oxidase.

Synthesis and structural study of cyclic 5-aminovaleric acid-linked beta-Ala-beta-Ala dipeptides.

5-Aminovaleric acid and ornithine were evaluated as linkers for the cyclization of beta-dipeptides. Two linked examples of beta-Ala-beta-Ala were prepared by standard coupling methods and their conformations probed by NMR, CD, and computational means. The data suggest that these non- or monosubstituted versions of the target compounds are flexible in solution.

Interaction between the cytoplasmic and transmembrane domains of the mechanosensitive channel MscS.

The bacterial mechanosensitive channel MscS protects the bacteria from rupture on hypoosmotic shock. MscS is composed of a transmembrane domain with an ion permeation pore and a large cytoplasmic vestibule that undergoes significant conformational changes on gating. In this study, we investigated whether specific residues in the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains of MscS influence each other during gating. When Asp-62, a negatively charged residue located in the loop that connects the first and second transmembrane helices, was replaced with either a neutral (Cys or Asn) or basic (Arg) amino acid, increases in both the gating threshold and inactivation rate were observed. Similar effects were observed after neutralization or reversal of the charge of either Arg-128 or Arg-131, which are both located near Asp-62 on the upper surface of the cytoplasmic domain. Interestingly, the effects of replacing Asp-62 with arginine were complemented by reversing the charge of Arg-131. Complementation was not observed after simultaneous neutralization of the charge of these residues. These findings suggest that the cytoplasmic domain of MscS affects both the mechanosensitive gating and the channel inactivation rate through the electrostatic interaction between Asp-62 and Arg-131.

Synthesis of lipophilic 2-oxoamides based on gamma-aminobutyric and delta-aminovaleric analogues and their activity against phospholipase A2.

A variety of lipophilic 2-oxoamides based on gamma-aminobutyric and delta-aminovaleric analogues were synthesized. 2-oxoamides containing a tetrazole, a thioethyl or a thioacetyl group are weak inhibitors of GIVA cPLA(2), while derivatives containing a methyl tetrazole, a diethyl phosphonate or a thioethyl group are weak inhibitors of GV sPLA(2).

New chemotactic dimeric peptides show high affinity and potency at the human formylpeptide receptor.

A number of analogues of the prototypical peptide for-Met-Leu-Phe-OMe (fMLP-OMe) have been studied in order to evaluate their ability to interact with formylpeptide receptors and to induce specific biological responses in human neutrophils. In vitro assays were carried out and receptor binding, chemotaxis, superoxide anion release and secretagogue activity were evaluated. The fMLP-OMe analogues synthesized, with the general formula for-Met-Leu-Phe-Xaa-Lys(OMe)-Phe-Leu-Met-for (Xaa=Gly, beta-Ala, gamma-aminobutyric acid, 5-aminovaleric acid, and 6-aminocaproic acid), were constituted by two fMLP units linked by a Lys residue, with an amino acid spacer between them. Competition binding experiments revealed that the new compounds have much more affinity for formylpeptide receptors than the reference ligand, with good correlation between receptor affinity and length of spacer. The EC(50) values for the killing mechanisms of each analogue were similar to each other, the affinity and potency, once again, being strictly dependent on the chain length. Furthermore the analogues proved to be more potent full agonists than the prototype fMLP-OMe in these functions, while chemotaxis was poorly induced. The dimeric fMLP-OMe analogues are one of the few examples of formylpeptides which exhibit a receptor affinity greater than the parent fMLP-OMe thereby rendering them suitable to be used as carriers for various drugs.