Unique neonicotinoid binding conformations conferring selective receptor interactions.

Neonicotinoid agonists selectively act on the insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR). The molecular basis for this specificity is deciphered by comparisons of two acetylcholine binding proteins (AChBPs) with distinct pharmacological profiles that serve as structural homologues for the nAChR subtypes. Aplysia AChBP has high neonicotinoid sensitivity, whereas Lymnaea AChBP has low neonicotinoid sensitivity, pharmacologies reminiscent of insect and vertebrate nAChR subtypes, respectively. The ligand-receptor interactions for these AChBPs were established by chemical and structural neurobiology approaches. Neonicotinoids and nicotinoids bind in a single conformation with Aplysia AChBP, wherein the electronegative nitro or cyano pharmacophore of the neonicotinoid faces in a reversed orientation relative to the cationic nicotinoid functionality. For Lymnaea AChBP, the neonicotinoids have two binding conformations in this vertebrate receptor model, which are completely inverted relative to each other, whereas nicotinoids are nestled in only one conserved conformation. Therefore, the unique binding conformations of nicotinic agonists determine the selective receptor interactions.

Neonicotinoid metabolism: compounds, substituents, pathways, enzymes, organisms, and relevance.

Neonicotinoids are one of the three principal insecticide chemotypes. The seven major commercial neonicotinoids are readily biodegraded by metabolic attack at their N-heterocyclylmethyl moiety, heterocyclic or acyclic spacer, and N-nitroimine, nitromethylene, or N-cyanoimine tip. Phase I metabolism is largely dependent on microsomal CYP450 isozymes with situ selectivity in hydroxylation, desaturation, dealkylation, sulfoxidation, and nitro reduction. Cytosolic aldehyde oxidase is a nitroreductase for some neonicotinoids. Phase II metabolism involves methylation, acetylation, and formation of glucuronide, glucoside, amino acid, and sulfate- and glutathione-derived conjugates. Some neonicotinoids act as proinsecticides with metabolism to more potent nicotinic agonists. Pest resistance is more commonly due to synergist-reversible CYP450 detoxification than to nAChR mutants or variants. Metabolites in some cases contribute to mammalian hepatotoxicity and carcinogenesis and in others to enhanced plant vigor and stress shields. These relationships explain much of neonicotinoid comparative toxicology and provide the basis for continued and improved safety and effectiveness of this chemotype.

cis-Configuration: a new tactic/rationale for neonicotinoid molecular design.

Resistance development and limited lepidopteran activities call for the discovery of "super-neonicotinoids" solving these problems. Compounds with the cis-configuration offer an opportunity for further optimization. Fixing the nitro group in the cis-configuration provided a new approach for neonicotinoid molecular design. Introductions of the heterocycle or a bulky group are two synthesis concepts to fix the cis-configuration of the nitro group. The design, synthesis, bioactivity, and preliminary modes of action of five types of cis-neonicotinoids are reviewed. cis- and trans-neonicotinoids have some differences in bioactivities and modes of action. This study focused, especially, on the reaction diversities of nitromethylene analogues of imidacloprid with various aldehydes.