[Animal pathogens as biological weapons]. / Patogeny zwierzece jako bron biologiczna.

In this article, the most important animal pathogens, which, according to CDC classification, can be used as biological agents, are presented. The means of dissemination and the ways of infection's propagation are reviewed. Typical and the most dangerous signs and symptoms are described, as well as the consequences of these infections.

Introduced species and their missing parasites.

Damage caused by introduced species results from the high population densities and large body sizes that they attain in their new location. Escape from the effects of natural enemies is a frequent explanation given for the success of introduced species. Because some parasites can reduce host density and decrease body size, an invader that leaves parasites behind and encounters few new parasites can experience a demographic release and become a pest. To test whether introduced species are less parasitized, we have compared the parasites of exotic species in their native and introduced ranges, using 26 host species of molluscs, crustaceans, fishes, birds, mammals, amphibians and reptiles. Here we report that the number of parasite species found in native populations is twice that found in exotic populations. In addition, introduced populations are less heavily parasitized (in terms of percentage infected) than are native populations. Reduced parasitization of introduced species has several causes, including reduced probability of the introduction of parasites with exotic species (or early extinction after host establishment), absence of other required hosts in the new location, and the host-specific limitations of native parasites adapting to new hosts.

Predatory behaviour of trapping fungi against srf mutants of Caenorhabditis elegans and different plant and animal parasitic nematodes.

The initial infection process of nematode-trapping fungi is based on an interaction between the trapping structure of the fungus and the surface of the nematode cuticle. A bioassay was designed to investigate the predatory response of several isolates of nematode-trapping fungi against 3 mutants of Caenorhabditis elegans (AT6, AT10 and CL261), which have been reported to differ in the reaction of their cuticle to antibodies and lectins. The bioassay was also applied to infective larvae of animal (Haemonchus contortus, Teladorsagia (Ostertagia) circumcincta and Trichostrongylus axei) and plant (Meloidogyne spp.) parasitic nematodes. Differences in trapping ability were most marked in the first 24 h, and were density dependent. Although the isolate of Arthrobotrys responded very rapidly in the first 24 h, Duddingtonia flagrans was generally the most effective isolate and Monacrosporium responded relatively poorly throughout all experiments. All the fungi tested trapped the srf mutants of C. elegans more efficiently than the wild type, and there were differences between the different srf mutants of C. elegans. Differences in trapping ability were also observed between different isolates of D. flagrans; similarly, differences in trapping behaviour were observed not only amongst the different species of plant-parasitic nematodes, but also between the sheathed and exsheathed larvae of the animal-parasitic nematodes.

Origins of the parasitic habit in the nematoda.

Circumstances that probably attended and influenced the adoption and development of the parasitic habit amongst the Nematoda are examined. Features that allowed early terrestrial nematodes to exploit discontinuous habitats such as decomposing organic matter, are considered to have been advantageous to microbivorous Secernentea that became parasites of animals and plants. This development followed the appearance of a land flora and that the Amphibia were the first vertebrate hosts of nematodes. Life cycles involving intermediate hosts were essential in drier environments and in a aquatic ones where intermediate hosts preserve the infective stages; keeps them "in circulation", and makes them attractive to predators. It is concluded that the parasitic habit was adopted repeatedly in both Secernentea and Adenophorea, though the latter did not diversify as much. Convergence is a common feature of nematode evolution, and the typical life history pattern of 5 stadia separated by 4 moults is often greatly modified by suppression, extension and diversification of stages and their roles. There is a need to examine the nematodes, especially of invertebrates in the remaining rain forests of Gondwanaland before they disappear.

The evolutionary expansion of the Sporozoa.

The sporozoans comprise a coherent group of protozoans, with characteristic and complex life cycles, containing 4-5000 species parasitic in invertebrates, particularly annelids and arthropods, and vertebrates. The group is a very successful one but neither its origins nor evolution are well understood. Considerations of traditional life cycles combined with newer methodologies have thrown some light on the evolutionary expansions of the main groups of sporozoans, the gregarines, coccidia, haemosporidians and piroplasms. The sporozoans of economic importance such as the coccidia, malaria parasites and piroplasms have received most attention but the data obtained have also thrown new light on the possible evolution of less well studied groups and it is concluded that conclusions based on simple comparisons of life cycles will have to be modified. It is also clear that humans have played a major part in affecting the distribution and present abundance of many sporozoans of economic significance and probably also those of less importance, and that the rates of evolutionary expansion are much more rapid than previously thought.

The evolutionary expansion of the trypanosomatid flagellates.

The trypanosomatids combine a relatively uniform morphology with ability to parasitise a very diverse range of hosts including animals, plants and other protists. Along with their sister family, the biflagellate bodonids, they are set apart from other eukaryotes by distinctive organisational features, such as the kinetoplast-mitochondrion and RNA editing, isolation of glycolysis enzymes in the glycosome, use of the flagellar pocket for molecular traffic into and out of the cell, a unique method of generating cortical microtubules, and bizarre nuclear organisation. These features testify to the antiquity and isolation of the kinetoplast-bearing flagellates (Kinetoplastida). Molecular sequencing techniques (especially small subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequencing) are now radically reshaping previous ideas on the phylogeny of these organisms. The idea that the monogenetic (MG) trypanosomatids gave rise to the digenetic (DG) genera is losing ground to a view that, after the bodonids, the African trypanosomes (DG) represent the most ancient lineage, followed by Trypanosoma cruzi (DG), then Blastocrithidia (MG), Herpetomonas (MG) and Phytomonas (DG), with Leptomonas (MG), Crithidia (MG), Leishmania (DG) and Endotrypanum (DG) forming the crown of the evolutionary tree. Vast genetic distances (12% divergence) separate T. brucei and T. cruzi, while the Leishmania species are separated by very short distances (less than 1% divergence). These phylogenetic conclusions are supported by studies on RNA editing and on the nature of the parasite surface. The trypanosomatids seem to be able to adapt with ease their energy metabolism to the availability of substrates and oxygen, and this may give them the ability to institute new life cycles if host behaviour patterns allow. Sexual processes, though present in at least some trypanosomatids, may have played only a minor part in generating diversity during trypanosomatid evolution. On the other hand, the development of altruistic behaviour on the part of some life cycle stages may be a hitherto unconsidered way of maximising fitness in this group. It is concluded that, owing to organisational constraints, the trypanosomatids can undergo substantial molecular variation while registering very little in the way of morphological change.

Correlates of the peridomestic abundance of Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae) in Amazonian Brazil.

Abundance of the sandfly Lutzomyia longipalpis, the vector of Leishmania chagasi, was surveyed using CDC light-suction traps in fifteen villages and 180 homesteads on Marajó island, Pará State, Brazil. Flies were most abundant in cultivated areas, secondary growth and open woodland, away from savanna grassland and forest. Within homesteads, the abundance of flies in animal sheds was weakly associated with the number of hosts kept therein, and inversely related to the number elsewhere, both human and animal. Houses harboured more flies if dogs were present and if the house had: a roof of thatch rather than of tiles or tin; a thatched roof which had not been treated with insecticide; relatively more holes in walls and roof. The sex ratio of flies was more male-biased at higher densities. We weigh the importance of these variables as risk factors for Le. chagasi infection.

[Development of parasitism in Nematoda and formation of host-parasite relationships]. / Powstawanie pasozytnictwa u nicieni i kszataltowanie sie ukladów pasozyt-zywiciel.

Nowadays the developmental process of parasitism within the nematodes of animals and plants also takes place. Rhabditida group coming from the soil saprophytic forms is an example of such evolutionary process in statu nascendi. The conditions and ways towards the close relationships between two organisms, leading from the commensalism and facultative parasitism to the obligatory one have been presented.

Sylvatic trichinosis in Ontario, Canada.

Samples of muscle from 4,773 specimens of 18 species of wild mammals from Ontario were examined for Trichinella. One of 12 mink (Mustela vison), 83 of 1,821 fisher (Martes pennanti) and 68 of 1,980 marten (Martes americana) had T. spiralis. Prevalences of infections by Trichinella were determined for fisher and marten from the Algonquin region, over a 10-yr period. Prevalences ranged from 0.9-9.2% in fisher and 1.3-8.7% in marten indicating that the parasite is well-established in the region. Prevalences of Trichinella increased with age of both fisher and marten. Intensities determined for the 1981-1982 sample ranged from 0.4-15.8 larvae/g for fisher and 22.4-159.7 larvae/g for marten. Higher intensities were not correlated with older hosts. Fisher and marten appeared to be the key hosts maintaining Trichinella in the Algonquin region, but transmission dynamics were unclear. Transmission may include an unidentified small rodent or other host and natural carrion-feeding.

Pneumocystis carinii Delanoë & Delanoë, 1912 found in lungs of freeliving animals in Denmark at autopsy.

Stained imprints made from autopsy lung biopsies from hares, foxes, badgers, stone martens, one hedgehog, roe deer from Denmark and from caribou from Greenland were examined microscopically for Pneumocystis carinii. Pneumocysts were found in the lungs of 3 out of 28 hares, 3 out of 18 foxes and 1 out of 6 roe deer. This is the first report of Pneumocystis carinii in hares, foxes, and roe deer in Denmark. It seems to be the first report of Pneumocystis carinii in roe deer.

Epizootiology of Sarcocystis infections in mule deer fawns in Oregon.

From 1974 to 1977, 62 wild mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) fawns from Steens Mountain, Ore were euthanatized in autumn (23 deer), winter (21 deer), and spring (18 deer). The number of sarcocysts of Sarcocystis spp was counted in histologic sections of various muscular organs. Sarcocysts were seen in the muscle specimens of 14 of the 23 deer euthanatized in autumn (September to November) and in specimens from all 39 deer euthanatized in winter (December and January) and spring (March and April). The sarcocyst burden was greatest in the spring (736/deer), less in the winter (150/deer), and least in autumn (12/deer). Most sarcocysts collected from 3- to 5-month-old deer in autumn were immature, whereas most sarcocysts collected from 9- and 10-month-old deer in the spring were mature. More sarcocysts were seen in sections of muscles from limbs than in those of tongue, esophagus, and other skeletal muscles; the fewest sarcocysts were seen in the heart. Degenerating sarcocysts were seen in deer examined in the spring, but not in deer examined in autumn and winter. Sarcocystis was the only infectious agent found in unthrifty deer fawns. Of the 18 fawns (6 in autumn, 1974; 6 in winter, 1974; and 6 in spring, 1975) examined for helminths, only mild infections were seen in the deer examined in the spring of 1975. From 1974 to 1977, from the Crooked Creek area of Oregon, 48 mule deer fawns (12 in autumn, 18 in winter, and 18 in spring) were euthanatized and evaluated for Sarcocystis infections.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Efficacy of clorsulon and albendazole against Fascioloides magna in naturally infected white-tailed deer.

The efficacy of clorsulon and of albendazole against Fascioloides magna were evaluated in 36 naturally infected white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in southern Texas. A single oral dose of clorsulon suspension (12 to 30 mg/kg of body weight; mean = 24 mg/kg) was given to each deer and killed 153 (92%) of 167 mature flukes and 4 (80%) of 5 immature flukes recovered at necropsy. A single oral dose of albendazole paste (17 to 46 mg/kg; mean = 26 mg/kg) was given to each deer and killed 148 (89%) of 167 mature flukes and 4 (67%) of 6 immature flukes recovered at necropsy. In 82 nontreated control deer, 271 live flukes were recovered; dead flukes were not recovered.

Efficacy of fenbendazole for endoparasite control in large herds of nondomestic ruminants.

An experimental 4% fenbendazole premix was milled into the feed of 55 nondomestic ruminants (37 antilopines, 12 hippotragines, and 6 caprines). Efficacy of the premix against endoparasites in the ruminants was determined by comparison with pre- and posttreatment fecal egg counts. Dosages calculated from feed consumption percentages were 3.6 to 8.5 mg/kg. Dosages less than 5 mg/kg resulted in 80% to 100% reductions in fecal egg counts, and dosages greater than 5 mg/kg resulted in 98% to 100% reductions in fecal egg counts. With all dosage groups considered, Strongyloides and Nematodirus eggs were most sensitive to treatment, with 100% reductions in fecal egg counts. Strongyle and Trichuris egg counts were reduced 90% and 96%, respectively.