Review of current and potential applications of mesenchymal stem cells in exotic animal species.

The discovery that a population of cells derived from adult tissues had regenerative properties and could be expanded and utilized therapeutically led to an abundance of research into the safety and efficacy of these cells for a variety of disease processes. Derived from tissues of mesenchymal origin, these cells were called mesenchymal stem cells or mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs). MSCs were subsequently found to have a variety of anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and regenerative properties both in vitro and in vivo. These cells have been extensively studied and demonstrated to be effective in the treatment of autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases, infectious diseases, and other pathologic conditions. Multiple veterinary clinical trials have been performed for diseases such as osteoarthritis, soft tissue, and tendon injuries in addition to other inflammatory and infectious conditions. Exotic animal species can pose additional challenges to the treatment of common medical conditions such as osteoarthritis due to varying metabolism and tolerance to medications as well as potential difficulty to medicate or utilize other common forms of therapy such as physical therapy, laser, massage, and acupuncture. Current knowledge of MSC use in exotic species is limited, but there is a large potential for benefit to a variety of species utilizing this novel therapeutic tool. This review includes a brief overview of mechanisms and known applications of this therapy as well as current and potential applications of MSCs in exotic animal species.

Identifying inconsistencies in exotic pet regulations that perpetuate trade in risky species.

Regulatory inconsistencies at different jurisdictional levels have contributed to the global expansion of the exotic pet trade, with resultant increases in the spread of invasive species and pathogens. Researchers have enumerated multiple limitations and environmental risks posed by international and national rules that govern the exotic pet trade, yet little attention has focused on the regulation of the exotic pet trade within national borders. We reviewed state-level regulations that apply to the trade of vertebrate animal taxa in the United States. Definitions and classifications for regulating different vertebrate taxa varied greatly across states, and the terms pet and companion animal were poorly defined and inconsistent across states. States implemented regulations that permit trade in exotic vertebrate pets that are banned from import into the United States owing to public health and conservation concerns. Once species have been imported into the United States, inconsistent internal regulations facilitate the movement of animals that pose substantial invasion and disease risks. Violations of state laws were typically listed as misdemeanors, and the median fine for violating state wildlife trade laws was $1000. Inconsistent and incomplete regulation of exotic vertebrate pets across state borders, in conjunction with limited penalties for violating regulations, has facilitated continued possession of exotic pets in states where these animals are banned. Based on our review of regulatory weaknesses, we conclude that a transition to a federally enforced list of vertebrate species that may be traded as pets is needed, with all other vertebrate species banned from the exotic pet trade unless their potential invasion and disease risks have been assessed and demonstrated to be low or nonexistent.

Identificación de las inconsistencias en las regulaciones de las mascotas exóticas que perpetúan el mercado de especies riesgosas Resumen Las inconsistencias regulatorias en diferentes niveles regulatorios han contribuido a la expansión mundial del mercado de mascotas exóticas, con un incremento resultante en la dispersión de especies invasoras y patógenos. Los investigadores han enumerado varias limitaciones y riesgos ambientales que representan las normas nacionales e internacionales que dictan el mercado de mascotas exóticas, pero se ha puesto poca atención en la regulación de este mercado dentro de las fronteras nacionales. Revisamos las regulaciones a nivel estatal que aplican al mercado de taxones de vertebrados en los Estados Unidos (EU). Entre los estados, las definiciones y clasificaciones para regular el mercado de los diferentes taxones de vertebrados variaron mucho y los términos mascota y animal de compañía contaban con definiciones deficientes e incoherentes. Los estados implementaron regulaciones que permiten el mercado de vertebrados como mascotas exóticas cuya importación está prohibida para los EU debido a cuestiones de salud pública y conservación. Una vez que las especies han sido importadas a los EU, las regulaciones internas incoherentes facilitan el traslado de animales que representan un riesgo importante de invasión y de enfermedad. Con frecuencia, las violaciones a las leyes estatales se denominaban delitos menores y la multa promedio por violar las leyes estatales de comercio de fauna era de $1,000. La regulación incompleta e incoherente del mercado de mascotas exóticas entre los límites estatales, en conjunto con las penalizaciones limitadas por violar las regulaciones, ha facilitado la posesión continua de mascotas exóticas en estados en donde estos animales están prohibidos. Con base en nuestra revisión de las debilidades regulatorias, concluimos que se necesita transitar a una lista con aplicación federal de especies de vertebrados que pueden ser comercializadas como mascotas, con todas las demás especies de vertebrados vetadas del mercado a menos de que se haya evaluado su riesgo potencial de invasión y de enfermedad y se haya demostrado que es bajo o inexistente.

Nutritional Considerations for Juvenile Exotic Companion Animals.

Pediatric exotic companion animal nutrition is a broad topic, spanning small mammals, reptiles, and birds. Little research has been performed focusing on the juvenile life stages of these species because they are largely acquired by clients at the young adult stage. The information that does exist has been compiled by wildlife rehabilitators, commercial breeders, and/or exotic captive breeding programs, such as those that exist in zoologic facilities. In this article, we discuss natural history, feeding strategies, energy requirements, digestive physiology and diet digestibility, and key nutrients of concern as factors for determining an appropriate diet for pediatric exotic species.

Behavioral Development of Pediatric Exotic Pets and Practical Applications.

The discovery of epigenetics and the interaction between genes and the environment have moved our understanding of how animal behavior develops from gestation to adulthood, and even throughout generations, to a new level. Studying the natural biology of exotic pets is key to providing them with a rich social and physical environment that will encourage species-specific behaviors. Combining parent-raising with appropriately timed human handling is likely to result in individuals with more resilience to stress. Using operant conditioning techniques early in life to train the animals' basic behaviors gives them control over their environment, empowering them through their social interactions.

Urine Output Monitoring and Acute Kidney Injury in Non-mammalian Exotic Animal Critical Care.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a sudden, severe decrease in kidney function which can occur in any species. There are various causes of AKI, some of which are seen in domestic species and some that are unique to birds, reptiles, and amphibians. These species present unique challenges with AKI management, such as differences in anatomy and physiology, intravenous and urinary catheterization, repeated blood sampling, and their tendency to present in advanced states of illness. This article will discuss AKI, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for non-mammalian exotic species.

Cerebro-Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Postarrest Care in Exotic Animal Critical Care.

Evidence-based recommendations for performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in domestic species provide a foundation for application to nondomestic species. The exotic and zoo practitioner must consider human safety, species anatomy, physiology, and special techniques for performing CPR. Having the hospital and team prepared and trained for a CPR response can improve outcomes. Basic life support includes various techniques for chest compressions and ventilation support. Advanced life support includes means of intravascular and intraosseous access, rescue drug administration, and consideration of the patient presenting circumstances. Team debriefs and support for mental wellness are useful to optimize performance and maintain team resiliency through CPR events.

Coagulation Disorders, Testing, and Treatment in Exotic Animal Critical Care.

Despite poor recognition in the literature, exotic companion animals are affected by many diseases that can result in disordered coagulation and fibrinolysis. This article outlines current knowledge of hemostasis, common diagnostic tests and reviews reported diseases associated with coagulopathy in small mammals, bird and reptiles. A range of conditions affect platelets and thrombocytes, endothelium and blood vessels, and plasma clotting factors. Improved recognition and monitoring of hemostatic disorders will enable targeted therapy and improved case outcomes.

Fluid Therapy in Exotic Animal Emergency and Critical Care.

Many new concepts are emerging in the understanding of fluid therapy in human and mammalian medicine, including the role of the glycocalyx, increased understanding of fluid, sodium, and chloride overload, and the advantages of colloid administration in the form of albumin. None of these concepts, however, appear to be directly applicable to non-mammalian exotic patients, and careful consideration of their alternate physiology is required when formulating fluid plans for these patients.

Urine Output Monitoring and Acute Kidney Injury in Mammalian Exotic Animal Critical Care.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a sudden, severe decrease in kidney function which can occur in any species. There are various causes of AKI, some of which are seen in domestic species and some that are unique to exotics. Exotic animals present unique challenges with AKI management such as differences in anatomy and physiology, intravenous and urinary catheterization, repeated blood sampling, and their tendency to present in advanced states of illness. This article will discuss AKI, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for exotic companion mammals. The following article will discuss the same in non-mammalian patients.

Sedation and Anesthesia in Exotic Animal Critical Care.

Sedation and anesthesia of exotic animals in inherently challenging, but often facilitates the best care for patients. Critical illness or injury adds on another layer of complexity to their management for obtaining diagnostics and providing treatments. This article serves to review some of the more recent literature of sedation and anesthesia within exotics practice, bringing to light some nuances and considerations for when those patients are critically ill or injured.

Point of Care Ultrasound in Exotic Animal Emergency and Critical Care.

Exotic pets are presented to veterinary clinics with increasing frequency for routine, urgent, and emergency needs. With these increased visits, owners' expectations for high-quality veterinary care are also increasing. Many presenting complaints of reptiles, birds, and small mammals can benefit from the use of point of care ultrasound (POCUS) to establish a minimum database, aid in triage, and help guide further diagnostics, treatment, and prognostic discussions with the owner. Hospitalized exotic patients can also have their progress tracked and better assessed with the aid of POCUS.

Temperature Monitoring and Thermal Support in Exotic Animal Critical Care.

Body temperature measurement is one of the most important parameters to assess the health of a patient. In small exotic mammals, rectal temperature is obtained via a similar process as in dogs or cats, with a few specific differences. In reptiles and birds, measurement of body temperature can provide important information, albeit its accuracy may be limited. In most animals, temperature should be taken at the beginning of the examination to not artificially elevate the temperature during the physical exam. Heat support is typically indicated any time a patient's temperature is below the accepted core temperature range and cooling may be indicated whenever a patient's temperature exceeds a critical point.

Antibiotic usage patterns in exotic pets: A study in Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.

Background: The link between the reckless use of antimicrobials with the increasing development of multidrug-resistant strains of antibiotics is well established. To control the spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), action plans, recommendations and guidelines on the prudent use of antibiotics have been developed for food-producing animals and companion animals but appear to be lacking in exotic pets due to the scarcity of data and information on the use of antibiotics in these species. Aim: The purpose of this study is to bring qualitative and quantitative data regarding the use of antimicrobials in exotic pets in a veterinary center in southern Brazil, seeking to measure the consumption of these animals to determine and guide future actions to combat AMR. Methods: A retrospective observational study was conducted by surveying 2,190 open care records in a specialized clinic of wildlife medicine in 2018. Data evaluation was performed in a descriptive, qualitative, and quantitative way, and the analysis of antimicrobial consumption was performed by calculating the daily dose/g of animal ml/day/kg by animal order, condition and active principle, adaptation to DDDVet. For statistical analysis, Levene´s, ANOVA followed by Tukey´s tests were used. Results: Approximately 57% (1250/2190) of the visits made use of one or more antimicrobials in the treatment of animals referred to the clinic. Of these, 67% (n = 839) were birds, 26% (n = 327) were mammals, and 7% (n = 84) were reptiles. In 2018, the total consumption of antimicrobials prescribed was 2.21 l for a total biomass of 129.24 kg. The relation between the dosages of the main antimicrobials used and the conditions treated showed that there is no variation between the treatments by disease and by animal class, due to the great variation within each group. Conclusion: The antimicrobial prescription in exotic pets requires a multifaceted and dynamic approach applied to safeguard the efficacy of the antimicrobials, optimizing consumption, minimizing the emergence of AMR and other possible adverse effects, and considering the physiological differences present within each species. The doses between the different classes and conditions do not obtain a significant difference, reflected in a possible nonstandardization of the dosages used, requiring further investigation of the recommended dosages for each animal species, avoiding the over or underdosing of these drugs. It is worth highlighting that professionals must always make rational use of antimicrobials in these species.

Diagnostic Use of Lactate in Exotic Animals.

Monitoring blood lactate concentrations with a handheld, point-of-care (POC) meter is an efficient and inexpensive method of monitoring critically ill or anesthetized exotic patients. Serial monitoring of lactate allows early recognition of hypoperfusion, allowing for prompt implementation of resuscitative efforts. Reference ranges for exotic animals are currently sparse and often gathered from field studies of wild animals. In the absence of reference ranges, extrapolations can be made regarding mammals and birds, but may be more difficult in reptiles and amphibians.