Anterior Segment Anatomy and Conventional Outflow Physiology of the Tree Shrew (Tupaia belangeri).

Purpose: Rodent and primate models are commonly used in glaucoma research; however, both have their limitations. The tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri) is an emerging animal model for glaucoma research owing in part to having a human-like optic nerve head anatomy, specifically a collagenous load-bearing lamina. However, the anterior segment anatomy and function have not been extensively studied in the tree shrew. Thus, the purpose of this study was to provide the first detailed examination of the anterior segment anatomy and aqueous outflow facility in the tree shrew. Methods: Aqueous outflow dynamics were measured in five ostensibly normal eyes from three tree shrews using the iPerfusion system over a range of pressures. Gross histological assessment and immunohistochemistry were performed to characterize anterior segment anatomy and to localize several key molecules related to aqueous outflow. Results: Anterior segment anatomy in tree shrews is similar to humans, demonstrating a scleral spur, a multilayered trabecular meshwork and a circular Schlemm's canal with a single lumen. Average outflow facility was 0.193 µL/min/mm Hg (95% confidence interval, 0.153-0.244), and was stable over time. Outflow facility was more similar between contralateral eyes (approximately 5% average difference) than between eyes of different animals. No significant dependence of outflow facility on time or pressure was detected (pressure-flow nonlinearity parameter of 0.01 (95% % confidence interval, -0.29 to 0.31 CI µL/min/mm Hg). Conclusions: These studies lend support to the usefulness of the tree shrew as a novel animal model in anterior segment glaucoma and pharmacology research. The tree shrew's cost, load-bearing collagenous lamina cribrosa, and lack of washout or anterior chamber deepening provides a distinct experimental and anatomic advantage over the current rodent and nonhuman primate models used for translational research.

Shape analysis of rectus extraocular muscles with age and axial length using anterior segment optical coherence tomography.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to evaluate the shape of the extraocular muscles (EOMs) in normal subjects using the en-face images of anterior segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT). The EOM insertion and the direction of the muscle fibers were investigated. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A total of 97 healthy normal subjects (194 eyes) at Okayama University Hospital (age, 47.1±21.5 years; range, 8-79 years) participated in the study. A series of 256 tomographic images of the rectus EOMs were captured using the C-scan function of the AS-OCT (CASIA2, TOMEY Co., Japan), and the images were converted to en-face images in multi-TIFF format. The anterior chamber angle to EOM insertion distance (AID) and the angle of the muscle fibers from the insertion site (angle of muscles) were measured from the images. The correlations of AID and angle of muscles with age and axial length were investigated and evaluated. RESULTS: AID and angle of muscles were significantly correlated with age or axial length in some EOMs. The AIDs of medial rectus (MR) (P = 0.000) and superior rectus (SR) (P = 0.005) shortened with age. The AIDs of MR (P = 0.001) and inferior rectus (IR) (P = 0.035) elongated with axial length, whereas lateral rectus (LR) (P = 0.013) shortened. The angles of MR (P = 0.001) and LR (P = 0.000) were found to have a more downward direction toward the posterior in older subjects. CONCLUSION: En-face images can be created by AS-OCT, and the shape of the EOMs in normal subjects using these image measurements was available. With the ability to assess the EOMs, AID and angle of muscles are expected give useful information for treating and diagnosing strabismus-related diseases.

Hyperbranched Cationic Glycogen Derivative-Mediated IκBα Gene Silencing Regulates the Uveoscleral Outflow Pathway in Rats.

The role of the IκB/NF-κB signaling pathway in the uveoscleral outflow pathway was investigated with IκBα gene silencing mediated by the 3-(dimethylamino)-1-propylamine-conjugated glycogen (DMAPA-Glyp) derivative. The IκBα-siRNA-loaded DMAPA-Glyp complex was transfected into the ciliary muscles of rats by intracameral injection (labeled as the DMAPA-Glyp+siRNA group). The Lipofectamine™ 2000 (Lipo)/siRNA complex and the naked siRNA were set as the controls. The mRNA and protein expression of IκBα, NF-κBp65, and MMP-2 were analyzed by real-time PCR, western blotting, and in situ gelatin zymography. Nuclear translocation of NF-κBp65 was analyzed by immunofluorescence. Rat intraocular pressure (IOP) was monitored pre- and postinjection. Gene transfection efficiency and toxicity of the DMAPA-Glyp derivative were also evaluated. After RNA interference (RNAi), IκBα mRNA and protein expression were significantly inhibited. NF-κBp65 mRNA and protein expression showed no significant differences. Nevertheless, nuclear translocation of NF-κBp65 occurred in the DMAPA-Glyp+siRNA group. Both mRNA expression and activity of MMP-2 increased, with the largest increase in the DMAPA-Glyp+siRNA group. IOP in the DMAPA-Glyp+siRNA group fell to the lowest level on day 3 after RNAi. The levels of Cy3-siRNA in the ciliary muscle of the DMAPA-Glyp+siRNA group did not significantly decrease over time. At 7 and 14 d after RNAi, no significant pathological damage was detectable in the eyes injected with the DMAPA-Glyp derivative or the DMAPA-Glyp/siRNA complex. Taken together, our results suggest that downregulation of IκBα expression in the ciliary muscle plays a crucial role in reducing the IOP values of rats. IκBα may become a new molecular target for lowering IOP in glaucoma. The DMAPA-Glyp derivative is safe and feasible as an effective siRNA vector in rat eyes.

Dynamic Optical Coherence Elastography of the Anterior Eye: Understanding the Biomechanics of the Limbus.

Purpose: Currently, the biomechanical properties of the corneo-scleral limbus when the eye-globe deforms are largely unknown. The purpose of this study is to evaluate changes in elasticity of the cornea, sclera, and limbus when subjected to different intraocular pressures (IOP) using wave-based optical coherence elastography (OCE). Special attention was given to the elasticity changes of the limbal region with respect to the elasticity variations in the neighboring corneal and scleral regions. Methods: Continuous harmonic elastic waves (800 Hz) were mechanically induced in the sclera near the corneo-sclera limbus of in situ porcine eye-globes (n = 8). Wave propagation was imaged using a phase-sensitive optical coherence tomography system (PhS-OCT). The eyes were subjected to five different IOP-levels (10, 15, 20, 30, and 40 mm Hg), and spatially distributed propagation velocities were calculated along corneal, limbal, and scleral regions. Finite element analysis (FEA) of the same regions under the same excitation conditions were conducted for further validation of results. Results: FEA demonstrated that the stiffness of the heterogeneous cornea-limbus-sclera transition can be characterized by phase velocity measurements of the elastic waves produced at 800 Hz in the anterior eye. Experimental results revealed that the wave speed in the limbus (cL = 6.5 m/s) is between the cornea (cc = 2.9 m/s) and sclera (cs = 10.0 m/s) at a physiological IOP level (15 mm Hg) and rapidly increases as the IOP level is increased, even surpassing the wave speed in the sclera. Finally, the change in elastic wave speed in the limbus (ΔcL∼18.5 m/s) was greater than in the cornea (Δcc ∼12.6 m/s) and sclera (Δcs∼8.1 m/s) for the same change in IOP. Conclusions: We demonstrated that wave-based OCE can be utilized to assess limbus biomechanical properties. Moreover, experimental evidence showed that the corneo-scleral limbus is highly nonlinear compared to the cornea and sclera when the eye-globe is deformed by an increase of IOP. This may suggest that the limbus has enough structural flexibility to stabilize anterior eye shape during IOP changes.

Changes in ocular biometry during short-term accommodation in children.

PURPOSE: Near work has been linked with myopia development; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Small increases in axial length during accommodation have previously been reported in adults, and therefore, this study aimed to examine if accommodation-induced changes in ocular biometry also occur in school-aged children. METHODS: A range of ocular biometric measurements were captured during brief accommodation tasks at four demands (0, 3, 6, and 9 D), in a group of 87 non-myopic, school-aged children using a Badal optometer mounted to a non-contact optical biometer (Zeiss IOLMaster 700, https://www.zeiss.com/meditec/int/product-portfolio/optical-biometers/iolmaster-700.html). Reliable biometry measurements and active accommodation were observed for 76 participants who were included in the analysis. The average central corneal thickness (CCT), anterior chamber depth (ACD), crystalline lens thickness (LT), anterior segment length (ASL), vitreous chamber depth (VCD), and axial length (AL) were determined for each accommodation demand. Raw measurements of AL and VCD were corrected to account for the effect of LT changes during accommodation. RESULTS: On average, AL increased with increasing levels of accommodation (p = 0.005). The mean (SEM, standard error of the mean) AL increase from 0 D to the 3, 6, and 9 D demands was 4 (1), 8 (1), and 15 (2) µm, respectively. All other biometric parameters, except CCT, changed significantly during accommodation. LT and ASL increased, and ACD and VCD decreased significantly with increasing accommodation (all p ≤ 0.02). A longer baseline AL was associated with greater levels of accommodation-induced axial elongation at the 9 D demand (p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: AL increased significantly during accommodation in children, consistent with previous findings in adults up to a 6 D demand. AL continued to increase for higher levels of accommodation (9 D demand), which children may experience during near tasks. These findings provide further insights into potential mechanisms linking near work, axial elongation, and myopia development. However, no myopic children participated in this experiment; therefore, further research is required.

Acute Effects of Intraocular Pressure-Induced Changes in Schlemm's Canal Morphology on Outflow Facility in Healthy Human Eyes.

Purpose: To estimate the outflow facility coefficient (C) as a function of Schlemm's canal cross-sectional area (SCAR) in healthy subjects using noninvasive oculopression tonometry (OPT). Methods: In 25 healthy volunteers, intraocular pressure (IOP) decay values were recorded by a ophthalmodynamometer, with a fixed external force (0.15 N) on the inferior-temporal eyelid, every 10 seconds, for four minutes, and again after a 30-minute rest. Schlemm's canal profile images and IOP were obtained pre-procedurally (baseline), immediately (T0), and at 1-minute intervals post-procedurally (T1, T2, T3, and T4). C was calculated for different IOPs. The SCAR, coronal, and the meridional diameter of Schlemm's canal were calculated. Results: Mean C0 for the maximum IOP was 0.020 ± 0.017 µL/min/mm Hg; mean C was 0.018 ± 0.0071 and 0.058 ± 0.0146 µL/min/mm Hg at 40 and 20 mm Hg, respectively. C was nonlinearly dependent on the IOP (R2 = 0.945). The SCAR was 5440 ± 3140.82, 3947.6 ± 2246.8, and 5375.7 ± 2662.7 µm2 at baseline, T0, and T4, respectively. The coronal diameter of SC decreased significantly from the baseline (33.02 ± 11.3 µm) to T0 (26.6 ± 9.37 µm) and recovered at T4 (32.3 ± 9.53 µm). The SCAR and IOP correlated significantly throughout (R2 = 0.9944; P < 0.001). C0 significantly correlated with the SCAR at baseline and with changes in the SCAR and IOP from T0 to T4. Conclusions: Schlemm's canal dimensions are responsible for the IOP-dependent mechanical forces, and these changes appear to directly affect outflow facility.

Influence of holding weights of different magnitudes on intraocular pressure and anterior eye biometrics.

PURPOSE: This study is aimed at determining the impact of holding weight corresponding to the 10% and 20% of participants' body weight during 5-min on intraocular pressure (IOP) and anterior eye biometrics. METHODS: Eighteen healthy young adults grabbed two jugs with comfort-grip handles, which were filled with water in order to achieve the desirable load (10% and 20% of participants' body weight). A rebound tonometer and Oculus Pentacam were used to assess IOP and anterior segment biometrics, respectively, at baseline, after 0.5, 2, 3.5, and 5 min of holding weights, as well as after 0.5 and 2 min of recovery in each experimental condition (control, 10%, and 20%). RESULTS: There was a significant effect of the load used on IOP (p = 0.016, ƞp2 = 0.215) and anterior chamber angle (p = 0.018, ƞp2 = 0.211), with the load corresponding to 20% of participants' body weight promoting a significant IOP rise (corrected p value = 0.035, d = 0.67), and anterior chamber angle reduction (corrected p value = 0.029, d = 0.69) in comparison with the control condition. No effects of holding weight were observed for anterior chamber depth and central corneal thickness (p > 0.348). CONCLUSIONS: Our data evidence that holding weight during 5 min increases IOP and narrows the anterior chamber angle, being these effects significant when using a load corresponding to 20% of body weight. Based on the current outcomes, lifting or carrying heavy loads may be discouraged for glaucoma patients or individuals at high risk for glaucoma onset, although future studies should explore the clinical relevance of our findings.

Changes in the anterior segment of the eye following uncomplicated pars plana vitrectomy. A review.

Pars plana vitrectomy is currently the most common technique used in retinal surgery. Although primarily involving the posterior segment of the eye it also affects the anterior segment. As this is a less published topic, the aim of this paper was to review the literature on changes in the anterior segment after uncomplicated pars plana vitrectomy using data based literature search. The conclusions are that even in otherwise ophthalmologically healthy patients, complications may occur in the anterior segment. Surgeons need to pay utmost attention in glaucoma patients and in those with endothelial insufficiency who are at highest risk of complications. He/she must also correctly plan a potential cataract surgery if not already done earlier. From the literature, most of the changes in the anterior segment after uncomplicated PPV are found to be temporary.

Anterior Segment Biometry and Their Correlation with Corneal Biomechanics in Caucasian Children.

PURPOSE: To assess the relationship between the corneal biomechanical parameters and the anterior segment parameters in Caucasian children. METHODS: This study included 293 eyes from 293 healthy children aged between 6 and 17 years. Corneal hysteresis (CH) and corneal resistance factor (CRF) were evaluated with the Ocular Response Analyzer, axial length (AL) with IOLMaster and the anterior segment with Pentacam. Anterior segment parameters obtained were the following: central corneal thickness (CCT), corneal volume (CV), anterior chamber depth (ACD), anterior chamber volume (ACV) and mean anterior and posterior keratometry. Two multiple linear regression models were constructed to assess the association between CH and CRF with anterior segment parameters. A value of p < 0.05 was taken as the criterion for statistical significance in all analyses. RESULTS: The mean CH and CRF were 12.12 ± 1.71 and 12.30 ± 1.89 mmHg, respectively. Multiple linear regression revealed that CH and CRF were associated negatively with AL in both models, and positively with CCT and CV in the first and second model, respectively. Meanwhile ACD, ACV or mean keratometry did not correlated with CH and CRF. Moreover, when CCT was in the model, it explained more variability for both CH (22.1%) and CRF (30.9%) than when CV was included (16.2% for CH and 16.5% for CRF). CONCLUSIONS: CH and CRF were correlated positively with CCT and CV, and negatively with AL in healthy Caucasian children. Moreover, corneal parameters were the most contributory variables to CH and CRF changes.

Relationship between the biomechanical properties of the cornea and anterior segment measurements.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relationship of biomechanical properties, corneal hysteresis and corneal resistance factor with age, sex and various corneal parameters measured with a Pentacam in normal subjects. METHODS: A total of 226 eyes from 113 patients were enrolled in this study. The subjects underwent Ocular Response Analyzer and Pentacam evaluations. A varying-intercept multilevel regression was implemented using Bayesian inference. The predictor variables were age, sex, central corneal thickness, corneal volume at a 7-mm diameter, anterior chamber angle and volume, anterior chamber depth, mean radius of the corneal curvature and corneal astigmatism. RESULTS: Corneal hysteresis ranged from 5.5 to 14.8 mmHg (mean 10.42±1.74 mmHg), and the corneal resistance factor ranged from 5.7 to 15.5 mmHg (mean 10.23±1.88 mmHg). No predictor variable other than gender and central corneal thickness had a significant correlation with either corneal hysteresis or corneal resistance factor. Corneal hysteresis was positively associated with female sex and with central corneal thickness, and corneal resistance factor was positively associated with central corneal thickness. CONCLUSION: Despite the associations found, only a small fraction of the variance in biomechanical measurements could be explained by the descriptors that were evaluated, indicating the influence of other corneal aspects on the biomechanical characteristics.

Relationship between the biomechanical properties of the cornea and anterior segment measurements

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relationship of biomechanical properties, corneal hysteresis and corneal resistance factor with age, sex and various corneal parameters measured with a Pentacam in normal subjects. METHODS: A total of 226 eyes from 113 patients were enrolled in this study. The subjects underwent Ocular Response Analyzer and Pentacam evaluations. A varying-intercept multilevel regression was implemented using Bayesian inference. The predictor variables were age, sex, central corneal thickness, corneal volume at a 7-mm diameter, anterior chamber angle and volume, anterior chamber depth, mean radius of the corneal curvature and corneal astigmatism. RESULTS: Corneal hysteresis ranged from 5.5 to 14.8 mmHg (mean 10.42±1.74 mmHg), and the corneal resistance factor ranged from 5.7 to 15.5 mmHg (mean 10.23±1.88 mmHg). No predictor variable other than gender and central corneal thickness had a significant correlation with either corneal hysteresis or corneal resistance factor. Corneal hysteresis was positively associated with female sex and with central corneal thickness, and corneal resistance factor was positively associated with central corneal thickness. CONCLUSION: Despite the associations found, only a small fraction of the variance in biomechanical measurements could be explained by the descriptors that were evaluated, indicating the influence of other corneal aspects on the biomechanical characteristics.

Relationship between anterior segment and optic nerve head parameters in healthy subjects.

PURPOSE: To determine the relationship between anterior segment and optic nerve head (ONH) parameters. METHODS: Two hundred healthy subjects were enrolled in this study. The par-ticipants underwent measurement of anterior segment parameters with a Pentacam Scheimpflug system and imaging of the optic disc with confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy. Pearson's correlation coefficient was calculated to assess the associations between ONH and anterior segment parameters. Multivariate regression analyses controlling for age and disc area as confounding factors were also conducted. RESULTS: There were significant negative relationships between optic disc area and corneal thickness (p=0.03, r=-0.217) and volume (p=0.017, r=-0.239). Corneal refractive power was significantly correlated with cup area, rim area, rim volume, and cup/disc ratio (p<0.05 for all). An increase of 1 diopter in anterior corneal refractive power corresponded to a decrease of 0.022 in cup/disc ratio. Rim volume was negatively correlated with anterior chamber depth and anterior chamber volume (p<0.05 for both). A 1-mm3 increase in anterior chamber depth corresponded to a 0.154-mm3 decrease in rim volume. Mean and maximum cup depth measurements were not associated with any of the anterior segment parameters. CONCLUSIONS: In nonglaucomatous eyes, the dimensions and shape of the ONH may be related to anterior segment morphology. Therefore, it may be helpful to take anterior segment parameters into consideration in evaluating the OHN.

Relationship between anterior segment and optic nerve head parameters in healthy subjects / Relações entre os parâmetros do segmento anterior e da cabeça do nervo óptico em indivíduos saudáveis

ABSTRACT Purpose: To determine the relationship between anterior segment and optic nerve head (ONH) parameters. Methods: Two hundred healthy subjects were enrolled in this study. The par­ticipants underwent measurement of anterior segment parameters with a Pentacam Scheimpflug system and imaging of the optic disc with confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy. Pearson's correlation coefficient was calculated to assess the associations between ONH and anterior segment parameters. Multivariate regression analyses controlling for age and disc area as confounding factors were also conducted. Results: There were significant negative relationships between optic disc area and corneal thickness (p=0.03, r=-0.217) and volume (p=0.017, r=-0.239). Corneal refractive power was significantly correlated with cup area, rim area, rim volume, and cup/disc ratio (p<0.05 for all). An increase of 1 diopter in anterior corneal refractive power corresponded to a decrease of 0.022 in cup/disc ratio. Rim volume was negatively correlated with anterior chamber depth and anterior chamber volume (p<0.05 for both). A 1-mm3 increase in anterior chamber depth corresponded to a 0.154-mm3 decrease in rim volume. Mean and maximum cup depth measurements were not associated with any of the anterior segment parameters. Conclusions: In nonglaucomatous eyes, the dimensions and shape of the ONH may be related to anterior segment morphology. Therefore, it may be helpful to take anterior segment parameters into consideration in evaluating the OHN.

RESUMO Objetivo: Determinar a relação entre os parâmetros do segmento anterior e da cabeça do nervo óptico (CNO). Métodos: Duzentos indivíduos saudáveis foram incluídos neste estudo. Os participantes foram submetidos à medição dos parâmetros do segmento anterior com o sistema Pentacam Scheimpflug e à obtenção de imagens de disco óptico com oftalmoscopia a laser de varredura confocal. O coeficiente de correlação de Pearson foi calculado para avaliar as associações entre CNO e os parâmetros do segmento anterior. Realizaram-se também análises de regressão multivariada que controlam a idade e a área do disco como factores de confusão. Resultados: Houve uma relação negativa estatisticamente significativa entre a espessura da córnea, o volume da córnea e a área do disco óptico (p=0,03, r=-0,217 e p=0,017, r=-0,239, respectivamente). As medições do poder de refração da córnea mostraram correlações significativas com a área da escavação, a área da rima, o volume da rima (RV) e a relação escavação/disco (C/D). (P<0,05 para todos). Um aumento de dioptria no poder de refração corneana anterior corresponde a uma diminuição de 0,022 em C/D. O RV mostrou correlação negativa com a profundidade da câmara anterior (PCA) e volume da câmara anterior. (P<0,05 para ambos). O aumento de 1 mm3 na PCA corresponde a uma diminuição de 0,154 mm3 no RV. As médias e as medidas máximas de profundidade de rima não mostraram associação com nenhum dos parâmetros do segmento anterior. Conclusões: Em olhos não glaucomatosos, as dimensões e forma da CNO podem estar relacionadas com a morfologia do segmento anterior. Portanto, pode ser útil levar em consideração os parâmetros do segmento anterior na avaliação da CNO.

Location and pressure dependent transmission of human and porcine sclera: an anterior to posterior examination.

PURPOSE: For diaphanoscopy or transscleral laser applications, the transmission of the sclera is an essential property. The study aimed to determine the pressure dependent transmission of human sclera from anterior to posterior. METHODS: Pressure dependent transmission measurements were performed by a pressure inducing setup at the range of 60-2058 kPa. The transmissions were measured within spectral range of 350-1100 nm. Specimens of human sclera were taken from corneo-scleral transplants. Those compounds were obtained at pars plicata residual sclera tissue. For an anterior to posterior examination of transmission, samples were taken from halved eye globes, which were formerly fixed in formalin. RESULTS: The pressure dependent transmission increased with rising load at all measured wavelengths for human sclera samples. The highest increase was observed for short wavelengths. With rising pressure, the increase of transmission aimed for a steady state. This behavior was fitted by a limited growing function. With an inducing burden of 2058 kPa, the steady state was already reached and exhibited an increase in transmission factor of 4.1 at 400 nm and 1.8 at 1000 nm. The anterior to posterior measurements of human sclera fixed in formalin were not corresponding to the results of the other human samples. For the porcine samples, the transmission increased from anterior to the equator of the eye globe. Further posterior the transmission decreased and rose again to N. opticus. With rising pressure, the transmission increased at all wavelengths and all locations. Posterior from the equator, with higher pressure the transmission became superior compared to anterior. CONCLUSIONS: The results of human sclera fixed in formalin could be related to formalin-induced cross-linking between the collagen fibers. Because of doubt about the physiological behavior of formalin-fixed samples, formalin-free porcine postmortem eye globes were also probed having a very similar thickness and histological structure as human sclera, so the results could be set in relation to human probes. These results can now be used to create an eye-map to determine maximum possible retina irradiation or illumination durations for transscleral applications in eye surgery.

The Relationship between the 24-hour Fluctuations in Schlemm's Canal and Intraocular Pressure: An Observational Study using High-Frequency Ultrasound Biomicroscopy.

PURPOSE: To assess 24-hour fluctuations in Schlemm's canal (SC) parameters (cross-sectional area, perimeter) and intraocular pressure (IOP) and the relationship between these fluctuations in healthy individuals. METHODS: SC and IOP were examined in 29 participants at 2:30, 5:30, 11:30, 17:30, and 23:30 within one day. The superior, inferior, nasal, and temporal SC quadrants were evaluated using 80-MHz ultrasound biomicroscopy. RESULTS: SC parameters and IOP fluctuated significantly within 24 hours (all P < 0.05). After age, gender, axial length, and central corneal thickness were adjusted, compared with the baseline (23:30) value, the change in SC cross-sectional area was negatively associated with the change in IOP at 2:30, 5:30, 11:30, and 17:30 (ß = -0.072[-0.094, -0.049], -0.070[-0.102, -0.038], -0.046[-0.079, -0.013], and -0.033[-0.062, -0.004], respectively; P < 0.001, < 0.001, = 0.009, and = 0.028, respectively). The nasal (175.6 ± 36.0 pixels) and inferior (174.8 ± 36.0 pixels) SC cross-sectional areas were significantly larger than the superior area (156.2 ± 27.1 pixels) (P = 0.018 and 0.048, respectively) at 23:30. The observable SC proportion did not change among the quadrants or measurement time points (all P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: SC cross-sectional area fluctuated throughout the day and was negatively associated with changes in IOP.

The long-term anterior segment configuration after pediatric cataract surgery and the association with secondary glaucoma.

Secondary glaucoma constitutes major sight-threatening complication of pediatric cataract surgery, yet the etiology remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the long-term anterior segment configuration and the association with secondary glaucoma in pediatric pseudophakia. Ultrasound biomicroscopy (UBM) was performed on 40 eyes of 26 children underwent pediatric cataract surgery and intraocular lens (IOL) implantation. The anterior chamber depth (ACD), angle-opening distance at 500 µm (AOD500), trabecular-iris angle (TIA), central corneal thickness (CCT), structural abnormities, IOL position, IOP, and incidence of glaucoma were evaluated. High insertion of iris, in which the iris root is attached more anteriorly than normal, was seen in 13 eyes (32.50%). IOL was located in the capsular bag in 19 eyes and in the ciliary sulcus in 21 eyes. Logistic regression analysis identified high insertion of iris (OR 3.40, 95% CI 1.03-11.17, p = 0.03) and IOL implantation in sulcus (OR 1.39, 95% CI 1.07-4.85, p = 0.04) as independent risk factors for glaucoma. The presence of high insertion of iris and IOL implantation in ciliary sulcus may increase the long-term risk of the development of secondary glaucoma after pediatric cataract surgery.

Anterior Segment Biometry of the Accommodating Intraocular Lens and its Relationship With the Amplitude of Accommodation.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the anterior segment biometry of the Tetraflex accommodating intraocular lens (AIOL) and the contribution of forward movement to the amplitude of accommodation (AMP). METHODS: Patients who underwent phacoemulsification with implantation of Tetraflex AIOLs and control nonaccommodating intraocular lenses were imaged by custom-built, long scan depth spectral-domain optical coherence tomography at relaxed and maximal accommodative states. Anterior segment biometry was performed and correlated with the clinical manifestation including AMP. RESULTS: Patients in the Tetraflex group showed better distance-corrected near visual acuity (logMAR 0.43±0.10 vs. logMAR 0.51±0.10, P<0.05) and greater AMP (1.99±0.58 diopters [D] vs. 1.59±0.45 D, P<0.05) compared with the control group. The measurement of the postoperative anterior chamber depth (ACD) during accommodation showed a forward movement of the AIOLs in 16 eyes (69.6%). Compared with the control group, a greater proportion of cases in the Tetraflex group experienced forward movement (χ test, P<0.001). The AMP in the AIOL group negatively correlated with changes in postoperative ACD during accommodation (r=-0.47, P<0.05), whereas AMP in the control group negatively correlated with postoperative pupil diameter (r=-0.57, P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The Tetraflex AIOLs seemed to have a tendency for forward movement; however, the slight forward axial shifts of the Tetraflex AIOL during natural accommodation may not produce a clinically relevant change in optical power.

[Finite Element Modelling of the Eye for the Investigation of Accommodation]. / Finite-Elemente-Modellierung des Auges zur Untersuchung der Akkommodation.

Background: Accommodation research increasingly uses engineering methods. This article presents the use of the finite element method in accommodation research. Material and Methods: Geometry, material data and boundary conditions are prerequisites for the application of the finite element method. Published data on geometry and materials are reviewed. It is shown how boundary conditions are important and how they influence the results. Results: Two dimensional and three dimensional models of the anterior chamber of the eye are presented. With simple two dimensional models, it is shown that realistic results for the accommodation amplitude can always be achieved. More complex three dimensional models of the accommodation mechanism - including the ciliary muscle - require further investigations of the material data and of the morphology of the ciliary muscle, if they are to achieve realistic results for accommodation. Discussion and Conclusion: The efficiency and the limitations of the finite element method are especially clear for accommodation. Application of the method requires extensive preparation, including acquisition of geometric and material data and experimental validation. However, a validated model can be used as a basis for parametric studies, by systematically varying material data and geometric dimensions. This allows systematic investigation of how essential input parameters influence the results.

Survey of ophthalmic anterior segment findings and intraocular pressure in 95 North American box turtles (Terrapene spp.).

OBJECTIVE: To describe the ophthalmic biomicroscopy findings and intraocular pressures (IOP) in a captive population of box turtles and to determine whether a relationship exists between body morphometrics or health status and IOP. PROCEDURES: Hundred and three box turtles (69 Gulf coast, 24 three-toed, one ornate, one eastern, and eight unidentified) were triaged into three different color-coded groups: green (healthy), yellow (abnormal physical examination with no need for immediate care), and red (immediate care required). Both eyes were evaluated by rebound tonometry and slit-lamp biomicroscopy. Body weight and morphometric data were recorded. RESULTS: Intraocular pressures measurements were available for 190 eyes, slit-lamp biomicroscopy was available for 170 eyes, and morphometric data were available for 81 turtles. IOP in Gulf coast turtles (138 eyes) was 6.7 ± 1.4 mmHg OU. IOP in three-toed turtles (48 eyes) was 8.3 ± 1.5 mmHg OU, which was significantly higher than in Gulf coast turtles (P < 0.0001). No significant IOP differences were noted between genders in both subspecies (P = 0.768). There was a correlation between IOP and health status in three-toed turtles only. There was a mild negative correlation between morphometrics and IOP in Gulf coast and three-toed turtles. Fifteen of 87 turtles had unilateral corneal or lenticular opacities; 3/87 had bilateral corneal or lenticular disease; and 3/87 had adnexal abnormalities. CONCLUSIONS: Different subspecies of box turtles have different normal intraocular pressures as measured by rebound tonometry, which was influenced by the animals' health status in one subspecies. Some morphometric parameters were found to be associated with IOP. Box turtles are often affected with ophthalmic abnormalities of unknown clinical significance.

Polymodal Sensory Integration in Retinal Ganglion Cells.

An animal's ability to perceive the external world is conditioned by its capacity to extract and encode specific features of the visual image. The output of the vertebrate retina is not a simple representation of the 2D visual map generated by photon absorptions in the photoreceptor layer. Rather, spatial, temporal, direction selectivity and color "dimensions" of the original image are distributed in the form of parallel output channels mediated by distinct retinal ganglion cell (RGC) populations. We propose that visual information transmitted to the brain includes additional, light-independent, inputs that reflect the functional states of the retina, anterior eye and the body. These may include the local ion microenvironment, glial metabolism and systemic parameters such as intraocular pressure, temperature and immune activation which act on ion channels that are intrinsic to RGCs. We particularly focus on light-independent mechanical inputs that are associated with physical impact, cell swelling and intraocular pressure as excessive mechanical stimuli lead to the counterintuitive experience of "pressure phosphenes" and/or debilitating blinding disease such as glaucoma and diabetic retinopathy. We point at recently discovered retinal mechanosensitive ion channels as examples through which molecular physiology brings together Greek phenomenology, modern neuroscience and medicine. Thus, RGC output represents a unified picture of the embodied context within which vision takes place.