The Paradox of Alcohol and Food Affordability: Minimal Impact of Leading Beer and Cachaça Brands on Brazilian Household Income Amid Hazardous Drinking Patterns.

Alcohol consumption, associated with various cancers, mental disorders, and aggressive behavior, leads to three million deaths globally each year. In Brazil, the alcohol per capita consumption among drinkers aged 15 and over is 41.7 g of pure alcohol/day (~1 L beer/day), which falls into the risky consumption category and exceeds the global average by almost 30%. An effective way to mitigate alcohol-related harm is to increase its retail price. This study assesses the costs of consuming leading brands of beer and sugarcane spirit cachaça (Brazil's most popular alcoholic beverages) against the expenditure on staple foods. Data on food and alcoholic beverage prices were collected in João Pessoa, Brazil, for 2020 and 2021. The cost per gram of pure alcohol and food were considered to establish consumption patterns of 16.8 g/day (moderate), 41.7 g/day, and 83.4 g/day (heavy), distributed in three scenarios involving the beverages alone or combined (64% beer and 36% cachaça), and a balanced 2000 kcal/day staple diet. The study finds that all heavy consumption scenarios cost less or significantly less (cachaça alone) than a 2000 kcal/day staple diet, highlighting an urgent need for fiscal policies, such as a minimum unit pricing for alcohol, to address public health concerns.

The impact of introducing alcohol-free beer options in bars and public houses on alcohol sales and revenue: A randomised crossover field trial.

AIMS: The study aimed to estimate the impact of introducing a draught alcohol-free beer, thereby increasing the relative availability of these products, on alcohol sales and monetary takings in bars and pubs in England. DESIGN: Randomised crossover field trial. SETTING: England. PARTICIPANTS: Fourteen venues that did not previously sell draught alcohol-free beer. INTERVENTION AND COMPARATOR: Venues completed two intervention periods and two control periods in a randomised order over 8 weeks. Intervention periods involved replacing one draught alcoholic beer with an alcohol-free beer. Control periods operated business as usual. MEASUREMENTS: The primary outcome was mean weekly volume (in litres) of draught alcoholic beer sold. The secondary outcome was mean weekly revenue [in GBP (£)] from all drinks. Analyses adjusted for randomised order, special events, season and busyness. FINDINGS: The adjusted mean difference in weekly sales of draught alcoholic beer was -20 L [95% confidence interval (CI) = -41 to +0.4], equivalent to a 4% reduction (95% CI = 8% reduction to 0.1% increase) in the volume of alcoholic draught beer sold when draught alcohol-free beer was available. Excluding venues that failed at least one fidelity check resulted in an adjusted mean difference of -29 L per week (95% CI = -53 to -5), equivalent to a 5% reduction (95% CI = 8% reduction to 0.8% reduction). The adjusted mean difference in weekly revenue was +61 GBP per week (95% CI = -328 to +450), equivalent to a 1% increase (95% CI = 5% decrease to 7% increase) when draught alcohol-free beer was available. CONCLUSIONS: Introducing a draught alcohol-free beer in bars and pubs in England reduced the volume of draught alcoholic beer sold by 4% to 5%, with no evidence of the intervention impacting net revenue.

Untangling the complexity of market competition in consumer goods-A complex Hilbert PCA analysis.

Today's consumer goods markets are rapidly evolving with significant growth in the number of information media as well as the number of competitive products. In this environment, obtaining a quantitative grasp of heterogeneous interactions of firms and customers, which have attracted interest of management scientists and economists, requires the analysis of extremely high-dimensional data. Existing approaches in quantitative research could not handle such data without any reliable prior knowledge nor strong assumptions. Alternatively, we propose a novel method called complex Hilbert principal component analysis (CHPCA) and construct a synchronization network using Hodge decomposition. CHPCA enables us to extract significant comovements with a time lead/delay in the data, and Hodge decomposition is useful for identifying the time-structure of correlations. We apply this method to the Japanese beer market data and reveal comovement of variables related to the consumer choice process across multiple products. Furthermore, we find remarkable customer heterogeneity by calculating the coordinates of each customer in the space derived from the results of CHPCA. Lastly, we discuss the policy and managerial implications, limitations, and further development of the proposed method.

Alcohol excise taxes as a percentage of retail alcohol prices in 26 OECD countries.

BACKGROUND: Many countries have implemented alcohol excise taxes. However, measures of excise taxes as a percentage of alcohol prices have not been systematically studied. METHODS: Data on the retail prices of alcoholic beverages sold in stores and excise taxes in 26 countries during 2003-2018 was from the Economist Intelligence Unit price city data and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) tax database. The percentages of excise taxes in off-premise retail prices were derived as the ratio of taxes to prices at different price levels. Changes of excise taxes over time were assessed using negative binominal regressions. RESULTS: The percentage of excise taxes in average off-premise alcohol prices was from 5 % in Luxembourg to 59 % in Iceland for beer, and from 0 % in France to 26 % in Iceland for wine. Excise taxes accounted for 5% of discount liquor prices in Czech Republic to 41 % in Sweden for Cognac, for 19 % in the United States (US) to 67 % in Sweden for Gin, for 13 % in the US to 63 % in Australia for Scotch Whisky six years old, and for 6 % in Iceland to 76 % in Sweden for Liqueur Cointreau. There were no significant changes in the percentage of excise taxes in alcohol prices over time in most countries except for Nordic countries. While wine had the lowest excise taxes, liquors had the highest tax burden. CONCLUSION: Tax burden on alcoholic beverages is low in OECD countries, indicating ample room for increasing alcohol excise taxes, particularly for beer and wine in those countries.

Evaluation of Alcohol Taxes as a Public Health Opportunity to Reduce Liver Transplant Listings for Alcohol-Related Liver Disease.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) is a leading indication for liver transplantation. METHODS: State consumption of spirits, wine, and beer was determined from published sources. Excise and ad valorem alcohol taxes of spirits, wine, and beer were calculated following standard practices and correlated using multiple logistic regression models to 2002 to 2015 ALD transplant listing data from the United Network for Organ Sharing database. RESULTS: 21.22% (29,161/137,440) of transplant listings were for ALD. Increased consumption of spirits was associated with increased ALD transplant listings (odds ratio [OR]: 1.67; 95% CI: 1.12 to 2.49, p = 0.01), but wine and beer consumption did not have a statistically significant association with ALD transplant listings. Spirits excise taxes on- and off-premise were inversely associated with ALD transplant listing (OR: 0.79 and 0.82, respectively, both p < 0.02). Beer and wine taxes were not significantly associated with ALD transplant listings. CONCLUSIONS: Transplant listings for ALD are directly associated with spirit consumption and inversely associated with spirits excise taxes. These findings suggest a possible public health benefit of increasing excise taxes for spirits.

Profiling of carbohydrates in commercial beers and their influence on beer quality.

BACKGROUND: The carbohydrates in beer play an important role as they are essential for fermentation. Any change in their composition may influence the sensory characteristics of the beer and so their determination is of great interest. This study compares the carbohydrates in three types of commercial beer - barley malt beer, wheat beer, and barley malt beer with adjuncts - and examines their influence on beer quality, which is important for selecting raw ingredients and production conditions, and for quality control. RESULTS: Among the oligosaccharides in three types of beer, raffinose was the most, followed by maltotetraose, maltotriose and maltose. Monosaccharides were only present in small amounts. Dextrin, oligosaccharides with 2-6 polymerization degree and non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) make up 15.90-34.83%, 17.59-38.63%, and 2.33-7.47% of the total carbohydrates in beer, respectively. The dextrin content and NSP content were significantly (P < 0.05) different in wheat beer and barley malt beer, and their content was significantly (P < 0.01) correlated with the content of extracts in beer. Non-starch polysaccharide, dextrin, trisaccharide, and tetrasaccharide content significantly (P < 0.05) correlated with beer viscosity. These beer samples could be categorized clearly into three groups by principal component analysis. CONCLUSION: The oligosaccharides in beer reflect yeast utilization, depending on the type of beer. Dextrin, oligosaccharides with 2-4 polymerization, and NSP, were major carbohydrates in beer. Their composition and concentration influenced its characteristics and quality, and played an important role in the discrimination of different beer types. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Neighbourhood context and binge drinking from adolescence into early adulthood in a US national cohort.

BACKGROUND: Underage binge drinking is a serious health concern that is likely influenced by the neighbourhood environment. However, longitudinal evidence has been limited and few studies have examined time-varying neighbourhood factors and demographic subgroup variation. METHODS: We investigated neighbourhood influences and binge drinking in a national cohort of US 10th grade students at four times (2010-2014; n = 2745). We estimated odds ratios (OR) for past 30-day binge drinking associated with neighbourhood disadvantage, personal and property crime (quartiles), and number of liquor, beer and wine stores within 5 km, and then evaluated whether neighbourhood associations differ by age, sex and race/ethnicity. RESULTS: Neighbourhood disadvantage was associated with binge drinking before 18 [OR = 1.54; 95% confidence interval (1.14, 2.08)], but not after 18 years of age. Property crime in neighbourhoods was associated with a higher odds of binge drinking [OR = 1.54 (0.96, 2.45)], an association that was stronger in early adulthood [4th vs 1st quartile: OR = 1.77 (1.04, 3.03)] and among Whites [4th vs 1st quartile: OR = 2.46 (1.03, 5.90)]. Higher density of liquor stores predicted binge drinking among Blacks [1-10 stores vs none: OR = 4.31 (1.50, 12.36)] whereas higher density of beer/wine stores predicted binge drinking among Whites [one vs none for beer: OR = 2.21 (1.06, 4.60); for wine: OR = 2.04 (1.04, 4.03)]. CONCLUSIONS: Neighbourhood conditions, particularly those related to economic circumstances, crime and alcohol outlet density, were related to binge drinking among young adults, but associations varied across age and individual characteristics.

Investigating patterns of millennials' interest in gluten-free beer in Poland: A question of beer price and alcohol content.

The quality perception of gluten-free beer was explored using conjoint analysis with a panel of Polish millennials (n = 200; aged 20 to 35), who were given 64 gluten-free beer concepts to evaluate and score on a 9-point scale of interest (1 = not interested at all; 9 = extremely interested). The constituent factors of the beer concepts were alcohol content, color, type of malt, price, drinking location and occasion, bottle size, label claims, type of farming, type of brewer, and bottle closure. Consumers judged price (38.4%) and alcohol (28.8%) five times more important than the other factors. Bottle size (5.3%), claims (4.8%), type of brewer (4.8%), malt type (4.6%), bottle closure (4.0%), beer color (3.6%), drinking location (2.3%), drinking occasion (2.0%), and type of farming (1.3%) were considered of little importance. The interest of Polish Millennials in gluten-free beer resulted moderate and not linked to medical needs. Males were more interested in gluten-free beers and gave more importance to alcohol content and less importance to price, compared to females. However, for both genders, interest and price were inversely correlated, while interest and alcohol content were directly correlated. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The identification of the product factors that are preferred by consumers is paramount to translate consumers' needs and expectations into a beer designed to produce the best possible product in a relatively short period. Including information directly obtained from consumers before final design decisions are taken on the final beer output, helps ensuring development directions are on target and constitutes a cost-competitive approach to product development.

The Composition and Magnitude of Alcohol Taxes in States: Do They Cover Alcohol-Related Costs?

OBJECTIVE: At least one type of tax is applied to the sale of alcoholic beverages in all U.S. states. The purpose of this study was to characterize the composition and magnitude of alcohol taxes in states and to assess the relationship between total alcohol taxes (federal plus state) and the cost of excessive drinking. METHOD: The amount of tax (in dollars per standard drink) by state was estimated from data on state ad valorem excise, specific excise, and sales taxes in 2010 obtained from the Alcohol Policy Information System and Tax Foundation. These taxes were summed, and specific excise taxes were assessed as a proportion of total state taxes. Tax data on beer were analyzed for all 50 states. Tax data for wine and distilled spirits were restricted to the 32 license states and Washington, D.C., with fully privatized distribution systems. Total alcohol taxes for the 32 license states were compared on a per-drink basis with published state estimates of the cost of excessive drinking in these states in 2010. RESULTS: Specific excise taxes accounted for a weighted median of 20.1% of total state alcohol tax revenue in the 32 license states and Washington, D.C. The median total alcohol tax per drink (based on all federal and state taxes) was $0.21, which accounted for 26.7% of the median cost to government and 10.3% of the median total economic cost of excessive drinking. CONCLUSIONS: Specific excise taxes account for one fifth of state alcohol taxes in the 32 license states; but even considering all tax types, total alcohol taxes account for only one tenth of alcohol-related costs.

Do beer and wine respond to price and tax changes in Vietnam? Evidence from the Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey.

OBJECTIVE: To provide the first ever published estimates of the price and expenditure elasticities of demand for beer and wine in Vietnam and thereby contribute to policy initiatives aimed at reducing the excessive consumption of alcohol. METHODS: We use a linear approximation of the Almost Ideal Demand System and data from the Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey for 2010, 2012 and 2014. RESULTS: We find that the demand for beer and wine in Vietnam is price and expenditure inelastic with average price elasticities of -0.283 and -0.317 and average expenditure elasticities of 0.401 and 0.156, respectively. That is, we find that beer and wine consumption decline whenever their respective prices increase and their consumption increases whenever expenditure rises. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the study lend confidence to calls for increased taxation of alcoholic products on public health grounds in Vietnam.

State-Level Beer Excise Tax and Firearm Homicide in Adolescents and Young Adults.

INTRODUCTION: This study sought to determine the association between changes in state-level beer excise tax and firearm homicide rates among individuals aged 15-34years. METHODS: A time series analysis with synthetic controls was conducted for the years 2003-2015. Exposed states changed the beer excise tax during the study period. Synthetic controls were weighted mimics that combined portions of unexposed states using state-year specific demographic and firearm covariates. Average annual incidence rate differences were calculated between each exposed state and its synthetic control. Alcohol taxes were available through the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism and firearm homicide rates were obtained from theCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. States that changed the beer excise tax but forwhich <2years of pre-exposure data were available were excluded. Data were collected in 2017 and analyzedin 2018. RESULTS: Five states met inclusion criteria, and all raised the beer excise tax: Illinois (2009), New York (2009), North Carolina (2009), Connecticut (2011), and Rhode Island (2013). The percentage increase in beer excise tax ranged from 10% to 27%. Differences in pre-exposure firearm homicide rates between exposed states and synthetic controls were minimal. The increase in beer excise tax was associated with a lower average annual firearm homicide rate in all states except Illinois (Rhode Island: incidence rate difference= -2.48, Connecticut: incidence rate difference= -2.57, New York: incidence rate difference= -1.45, North Carolina: incidence rate difference= -0.45, and Illinois: incidence rate difference=1.54 per 100,000 population). CONCLUSIONS: Among individuals aged 15-34years, price-sensitive consumption of beer may representone feasible tool for policymakers seeking to reduce rates of firearm homicide.

A "buck a beer," but at what cost to public health?

Alcohol use leads to a substantial number of hospitalizations, and to increased health and social harms as well as economic costs in Ontario and across Canada. The effects of alcohol price changes on consumption and resulting harms have been firmly established; changes in the minimum price of alcohol have the greatest effect on consumption among people who for reasons of affordability consume low-priced alcoholic beverages, typically adolescents, people with lower socio-economic status, and people with harmful alcohol use. Decreases in inflation-adjusted minimum pricing in British Columbia from 2002 to 2006 have been associated with increases in deaths wholly attributable to alcohol. Furthermore, decreases in alcohol prices have been previously associated with increases in drink-driving, decreases in life expectancy, increases in road traffic injuries, violence, and alcohol poisonings, and long-term increases in deaths from infectious diseases, circulatory diseases, and digestive diseases. Based on the findings of previous studies, lowering the cost of alcohol will negatively impact the health of Ontarians and further strain a healthcare system with limited resources. Accordingly, Ontario should be strengthening alcohol policies to improve public health, including raising the minimum price of alcohol, rather than weakening alcohol policies.

An international analysis of the price and affordability of beer.

AIMS: To apply methods for measuring the affordability of beer in a large cross section of countries, and to investigate trends in affordability of beer over time. METHODS: We use the Relative Income Price (RIP), which uses per capita GDP, to measure the affordability of beer in up to 92 countries from 1990 to 2016 (69 countries were included in 1990, however the survey has since grown to include 92 countries). In addition to affordability, we also investigate trends in the price of beer. RESULTS: While beer is, on average, similarly priced in high-income (HICs) and low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), it is significantly more affordable in HICs. There is significant variation in both price and affordability in HICs and in LMICs. Beer has become cheaper in real terms in 49% (18/37) of HICs and 43% (20/46) of LMICs. Beer became more affordable in most HICs (RIP: 30/37 or 81%) and LMICs (RIP: 42/44 or 95%). CONCLUSIONS: The increased affordability over time of beer in most countries raises concerns about public health. Governments need to increase taxes on beer so that it becomes less affordable over time, in an effort to improve public health.

Willingness-to-pay for sustainable beer.

Breweries across the country are investing in energy efficient and low-carbon brewing practices. Drawing insights from the sustainable consumption and ecological economics literature, this analysis evaluates whether consumers are willing to pay more for sustainable beer and what predicts the value of the premium. Based on a survey of beer consumers from across the U.S. that contained one of two willingness-to-pay exercises, we evaluate what respondent attributes are associated with a higher willingness-to-pay for sustainably brewed beer. We find that the majority of beer consumers are willing to pay more for sustainable beer. Consumers who are prepared to pay a premium tend to already pay more per unit of beer, are more aware of their purchasing behavior and the manner in which their consumption patterns may affect the environment, and pursue lifestyles based on professional advancement, helping the environment, and helping other causes.

Occurrence and risk assessment of mycotoxins, acrylamide, and furan in Latvian beer.

This work reports data on the occurrence of nine mycotoxins and two food processing contaminants - acrylamide and furan - in a total of 100 beers produced in Latvia. Mycotoxins were detected by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry, acrylamide by HPLC coupled with quadrupole-Orbitrap mass spectrometry, and furan by headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The most frequently occurring mycotoxins were HT-2 and deoxynivalenol (DON), which were detected in 52% and 51% of the analysed samples. The highest content was observed for DON, reaching the maximum of 248 µg kg-1. Furan was ubiquitous, and 74% of the samples contained acrylamide. In terms of the estimated exposure, the biggest potential risk was identified for HT-2 representing more than 11% of tolerable weekly intake. The margin of exposure approach indicated the exposure to furan through beer as significant, this parameter being close to the critical limit.

Erosion of State Alcohol Excise Taxes in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: In the United States, excessive alcohol consumption is responsible for 88,000 deaths annually and cost $249 billion, or $2.05 per drink, in 2010. Specific excise taxes, the predominant form of alcohol taxation in the United States, are based on the volume of alcohol sold rather than a percentage of price and can thus degrade over time because of inflation. The objective of this study was to describe changes in inflation-adjusted state alcohol excise taxes on a beverage-specific basis. METHOD: State-level data on specific excise taxes were obtained from the Alcohol Policy Information System and the Tax Foundation. Excise tax rates were converted into the tax per standard U.S. drink (14 g of ethanol) for beer, wine, and distilled spirits, and converted into 2015 dollars using annual Consumer Price Index data. RESULTS: Across U.S. states, the average state alcohol excise tax per drink in 2015 was $0.03 for beer, $0.05 for distilled spirits, and $0.03 for wine. From 1991 to 2015, the average inflation-adjusted (in 2015 dollars) state alcohol excise tax rate declined 30% for beer, 32% for distilled spirits, and 27% for wine. Percentage declines in state excise taxes since their inception were more than twice as large as those from 1991 to 2015. CONCLUSIONS: In 2015, average state specific excise taxes were $0.05 or less per standard drink across all beverage types and have experienced substantial inflation-adjusted declines.

Alcohol Consumption and the Physical Availability of Take-Away Alcohol: Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses of the Days and Hours of Sale and Outlet Density.

OBJECTIVE: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses were completed studying the effect of changes in the physical availability of take-away alcohol on per capita alcohol consumption. Previous reviews examining this topic have not focused on off-premise outlets where take-away alcohol is sold and have not completed meta-analyses. METHOD: Systematic reviews were conducted separately for policies affecting the temporal availability (days and hours of sale) and spatial availability (outlet density) of take-away alcohol. Studies were included up to December 2015. Quality criteria were used to select articles that studied the effect of changes in these policies on alcohol consumption with a focus on natural experiments. Random-effects meta-analyses were applied to produce the estimated effect of an additional day of sale on total and beverage-specific consumption. RESULTS: Separate systematic reviews identified seven studies regarding days and hours of sale and four studies regarding density. The majority of articles included in these systematic reviews, for days/hours of sale (7/7) and outlet density (3/4), concluded that restricting the physical availability of take-away alcohol reduces per capita alcohol consumption. Meta-analyses studying the effect of adding one additional day of sale found that this was associated with per capita consumption increases of 3.4% (95% CI [2.7, 4.1]) for total alcohol, 5.3% (95% CI [3.2, 7.4]) for beer, 2.6% (95% CI [1.8, 3.5]) for wine, and 2.6% (95% CI [2.1, 3.2]) for spirits. The small number of included studies regarding hours of sale and density precluded meta-analysis. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that decreasing the physical availability of take-away alcohol will decrease per capita consumption. As decreasing per capita consumption has been shown to reduce alcohol-related harm, restricting the physical availability of take-away alcohol would be expected to result in improvements to public health.

Could You Buy Me a Beer? Measuring Secondary Supply of Alcohol in Dutch On-Premise Outlets.

OBJECTIVE: Alcohol is largely available for Dutch minors through on-premise secondary supply, which occurs when an adult furnishes an alcoholic drink to a minor in an on-premise outlet. Vendors allowing this secondary supply on their premises are in violation of the Dutch Licensing and Catering Act (legal age limit is 18 years old for the sale and possession of alcohol). Using existing mystery shopping protocols as a standard, our study objective was the development and field testing of a novel procedure, measuring vendors' compliance with secondary supply. METHOD: Using a newly developed mystery shopping procedure, transfers of alcohol between young adult buyers and minors were staged in 109 Dutch on-premise outlets (cafes and bars) to measure vendors' compliance with secondary supply. RESULTS: In accordance with the Dutch Licensing and Catering Act, 29% of the vendors disallowed the secondary supply of alcohol to minors (32 of 109 attempts). During 40 attempts (of 109 attempts; 37%), the vendor asked for the identification document (ID) of the minor. Compliance after the ID was requested was 80% (32 of 40 attempts). During 8 attempts (20%), the minors were served even after the ID of the minor was requested. CONCLUSIONS: Mystery shopping is a suitable methodology for measuring compliance with secondary supply. Results show that alcohol is largely available for Dutch minors through secondary supply. Governments that intend to formulate and evaluate enforcement policies aimed at curbing high alcohol availability for minors are advised to use this novel procedure for monitoring compliance and to use these results for agenda setting and benchmarking.

Price Elasticity of Alcohol Demand in India.

AIMS: Using a household survey conducted in 2014, this study estimates price elasticity of demand (PED) for beer, country liquor and spirits in India. METHODS: Ordinary least-square models were used to estimate the responsiveness in alcohol demand due to price change. A large number of control variables were included to adjust for potential confounding in the model. Inter-district variation in alcohol consumption is adjusted for by including district fixed effects. RESULTS: Alcohol prices are negatively associated with demand for alcoholic beverages. The PED ranged from -0.14 for spirits to -0.46 for country liquor. Low level of education was positively associated with spirits consumption. The magnitude of elasticity varied by rural-urban, education and gender. CONCLUSION: Results indicate that a policy mix of price controls and awareness campaigns would be most effective in tackling the adverse effects of harmful drinking in India. SUMMARY: The demand for beer, country liquor and spirits is negatively associated with its own price. The elasticity estimates ranged from -0.14 for spirits to -0.44 for country liquor. The elasticity estimates varied by rural-urban, gender and by education levels of the drinkers.