Role of autophagy in midgut stem cells of silkworm Bombyx mori, during larval-pupal metamorphosis.

Autophagy is a critical mechanism for the self-renewal, proliferation, and differentiation of stem cells. Bombyx mori midgut has stem cells that play a role in the regeneration of the larval epithelium in larval stages and the formation of the pupal midgut epithelium during larval-pupal metamorphosis. In this study, the role of the autophagy mechanism in midgut stem cells during the formation of the pupal midgut was investigated. For this purpose, two different doses of autophagy inhibitor chloroquine were administered to B. mori larvae on days 7 and 8 of the fifth larval stage. Morphological changes during the formation process of the pupal epithelium, expression levels of autophagy-related genes Atg8 and Atg12 in stem cells, and the amounts of lysosomal enzyme acid phosphatase were determined after the application. The obtained findings were evaluated in comparison with the control groups. Abnormalities in the formation of the pupal midgut after inhibition of autophagy showed the significance of the autophagy mechanism during this period.

Toll9 from Bombyx mori functions as a pattern recognition receptor that shares features with Toll-like receptor 4 from mammals.

Toll/Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are key regulators of the innate immune system in both invertebrates and vertebrates. However, while mammalian TLRs directly recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns, the insect Toll pathway is thought to be primarily activated by binding Spätzle cytokines that are processed from inactive precursors in response to microbial infection. Phylogenetic and structural data generated in this study supported earlier results showing that Toll9 members differ from other insect Tolls by clustering with the mammalian TLR4 group, which recognizes lipopolysaccharide (LPS) through interaction with myeloid differentiation-2 (MD-2)-like proteins. Functional experiments showed that BmToll9 from the silkmoth Bombyx mori also recognized LPS through interaction with two MD-2-like proteins, previously named BmEsr16 and BmPP, that we refer to in this study as BmMD-2A and BmMD-2B, respectively. A chimeric BmToll9-TLR4 receptor consisting of the BmToll9 ectodomain and mouse TLR4 transmembrane and Toll/interleukin-1 (TIR) domains also activated LPS-induced release of inflammatory factors in murine cells but only in the presence of BmMD-2A or BmMD-2B. Overall, our results indicate that BmToll9 is a pattern recognition receptor for LPS that shares conserved features with the mammalian TLR4-MD-2-LPS pathway.

Identification and characterization of sexually dimorphic neurons that express the sex-determining gene doublesex in the brain of silkmoth Bombyx mori.

Sexual differences in behavior are generated by sexually dimorphic neural circuits in animals. In insects, a highly conserved sex-determining gene doublesex (dsx) plays essential roles in the development of sexual dimorphisms. In the present study, to elucidate the neural basis of sexual differences in behaviors of silkmoth Bombyx mori, we investigated Bombyx mori dsx (Bmdsx) expression in the brains through development. In the brain, Bmdsx was differentially expressed in sex- and developmental stage-dependent manners. BmDSX protein-expressing cells were located in the dorsomedial region of the pupal and adult brains, and constituted two and one neural clusters in males and females, respectively. The number of BmDSX-positive cells was developmentally regulated and peaked at the early to middle pupal stages, suggesting that the sexually dimorphic neural circuits are established during this period. The detection of a neural activity marker protein BmHR38 suggested that the BmDSX-positive cells are not active during sexual behavior in both male and female moths, even though the cells in the vicinity of the BmDSX-positive cell clusters are active. These results imply that Bmdsx plays roles in the development of sexually dimorphic neural circuits, but the neural circuits are not related to sexual behavior in silkmoths.

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated mutagenesis of Ago2 and Siwi in silkworm cultured cells.

The BmN-4 cell line, originated from the silkworm Bombyx mori ovary, possesses endogenous small interfering RNA (siRNA) and PIWI-interacting RNA (piRNA) pathways. We performed CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing of Ago2 and Siwi, which are the core factors for siRNA and piRNA pathways, respectively, to understand the importance of the two distinct small RNA pathways in this cell line. We found that approximately half of the alleles contained loss-of-function mutations in both Ago2- and Siwi-mutated cells. The mutated cells grew at a slower rate compared to the control cells, strongly suggesting that the siRNA and piRNA pathways are both crucial for the normal growth of BmN-4 cells. The amounts of piRNAs decreased markedly in the Siwi-mutated cells, but global de-repression of transposable elements was not observed. Although the RNA amount of latently infected RNA virus, Bombyx mori macula-like virus (BmLV), increased in both Ago2- and Siwi-mutated cells, the siRNA and piRNA pathways showed a bias toward targeting BmLV genomic and subgenomic RNA, respectively. These results indicate the common, specific, and crucial roles of the two small RNA pathways in B. mori cultured cells.

Efficient production of recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike protein using the baculovirus-silkworm system.

In the case of a new viral disease outbreak, an immediate development of virus detection kits and vaccines is required. For COVID-19, we established a rapid production procedure for SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S protein) by using the baculovirus-silkworm expression system. The baculovirus vector-derived S proteins were successfully secreted to silkworm serum, whereas those formed insoluble structure in the larval fat body and the pupal cells. The ectodomain of S protein with the native sequence was cleaved by the host furin-protease, resulting in less recombinant protein production. The S protein modified in furin protease-target site was efficiently secreted to silkworm serum and was purified as oligomers, which showed immunoreactivity for anti-SARS-CoV-2 S2 antibody. By using the direct transfection of recombinant bacmid to silkworms, we achieved the efficient production of SARS-CoV-2 S protein as fetal bovine serum (FBS)-free system. The resultant purified S protein would be useful tools for the development of immunodetection kits, antigen for immunization for immunoglobulin production, and vaccines.

Metabolomic Analysis of Cricket paralysisvirus Infection in Drosophila S2 Cells Reveals Divergent Effects on Central Carbon Metabolism as Compared with Silkworm Bm5 Cells.

High-throughput approaches have opened new opportunities for understanding biological processes such as persistent virus infections, which are widespread. However, the potential of persistent infections to develop towards pathogenesis remains to be investigated, particularly with respect to the role of host metabolism. To explore the interactions between cellular metabolism and persistent/pathogenic virus infection, we performed untargeted and targeted metabolomic analysis to examine the effects of Cricket paralysis virus (CrPV, Dicistroviridae) in persistently infected silkworm Bm5 cells and acutely infected Drosophila S2 cells. Our previous study (Viruses 2019, 11, 861) established that both glucose and glutamine levels significantly increased during the persistent period of CrPV infection of Bm5 cells, while they decreased steeply during the pathogenic stages. Strikingly, in this study, an almost opposite pattern in change of metabolites was observed during different stages of acute infection of S2 cells. More specifically, a significant decrease in amino acids and carbohydrates was observed prior to pathogenesis, while their abundance significantly increased again during pathogenesis. Our study illustrates the occurrence of diametrically opposite changes in central carbon mechanisms during CrPV infection of S2 and Bm5 cells that is possibly related to the type of infection (acute or persistent) that is triggered by the virus.

Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus F-like protein Bm14 is a type I integral membrane protein that facilitates ODV attachment to the midgut epithelial cells.

Our previous study showed that the Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) F-like protein Bm14 is intrinsically related to the production of occlusion bodies, occlusion-derived virus (ODV) embedding and virulence in infected larvae. However, the exact mechanism by which Bm14 affects primary infection remains unknown. In this report, we characterized the detailed distribution and topology of Bm14 in occlusion bodies (OBs) and ODVs, and then further investigated the functional role of Bm14 in primary infection. A combination of Western blot and immunoelectron microscopy showed that Bm14 is mainly present on the surface of ODVs within OBs, but rarely in the OB matrix. Further phase separation and topology analysis of Bm14 by selective permeabilization revealed that Bm14 is a type I integral membrane protein with an N-terminus hidden in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen and a C-terminus exposed to the cytosol. In vivo assays demonstrated that the disruption of bm14 impaired the interactions of ODV with midgut epithelia, resulting in delayed spread in larval tissues. As the essential trigger of primary infection, some per os infectivity factors (PIFs) were verified to interact with Bm14 via a series of coimmunoprecipitation analyses. Further partially denaturing SDS-PAGE and BN-PAGE assays clearly showed that the deletion of bm14 did not affect the formation and presence of the PIF complex. In conclusion, Bm14 functions as a type I integral membrane protein to regulate ODV attachment to the midgut epithelial cells.

Identification of the minimal AcMNPV P143 protein region responsible for triggering apoptosis and rRNA degradation of Bombyx mori cells.

Bombyx mori cells induce antiviral responses including global protein synthesis shutdown, rRNA degradation, and apoptosis upon infection with Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV). We previously demonstrated that five and six amino acid residues located at positions between 514 and 599 of AcMNPV P143 (Ac-P143) protein are important for induction of apoptosis and rRNA degradation, respectively. However, it remains unexplored whether other residues of Ac-P143 protein also participate in antiviral immune responses. Here, we conducted transient expression analysis using a number of Ac-P143 protein deletion and truncation mutants and found that some of the N-terminal 413 residues (amino acids 1-413), besides previously identified residues between amino acids 514 and 599, are indispensable, whereas C-terminal 622 residues (amino acids 600-1221) are dispensable, for Ac-P143 protein to induce apoptosis or rRNA degradation. In addition, we found that the N-terminal 413 sequence (amino acids 1-413) of Ac-P143 protein can be substituted with corresponding BmNPV P143 (Bm-P143) protein sequence. Further analysis demonstrated that mutant Ac-P143 protein consisting of 275 residues (amino acids 325-599), but not 274 residues (amino acids 326-599) lacking glutamine residue at position 325 (Q325), is sufficient for triggering apoptosis and rRNA degradation of B. mori cells. These 275 residues are located outside the region of DNA helicase motifs of Ac-P143 protein, indicating that induction of apoptosis or rRNA degradation occurs independently of viral DNA replication-related function of the Ac-P143 protein. Moreover, Ac-P143(325-599/Q325A) and Ac-P143(1-599/Q325A) proteins harboring Q325A substitution retain the ability to induce apoptosis and rRNA degradation in B. mori cells. These findings suggest that the Ac-P143 protein needs minimal sequence length starting from the Q325 residue that contains a specific effector domain to induce apoptosis and rRNA degradation.

Development of SpyTag/SpyCatcher-Bacmid Expression Vector System (SpyBEVS) for Protein Bioconjugations Inside of Silkworms.

Protein conjugations at post-translational levels are known to be essential to protein stability and function. Recently, it has been proven that the split protein CnaB2 (SpyTag/SpyCatcher, ST/SC) from Streptococcus pyogenes can induce covalent conjugation rapidly and efficiently under various conditions. The protein of interest fused with the split protein SC/ST could be assembled spontaneously. In light of this finding, we introduced the ST/SC protein coupling concept into the silkworm-bacmid protein expression system (SpyBEVS). As a proof of concept, we first examined and confirmed that a competent ligation occurred between ST/SC-fused protein partners in vitro in cultured silkworm cells and in vivo in silkworm larvae by co-infection of several recombinant baculoviruses. The protein conjugation could be also achieved sufficiently by a simple one-step mixture of purified ST/SC-tagged peptide-protein pairs in vitro. Given the flexibility and robustness of silkworm-BEVS, our results on SpyBEVS show an alternative method for enabling the production of protein decorations in vitro and inside of silkworms.

A Metabolomics Approach to Unravel Cricket Paralysis Virus Infection in Silkworm Bm5 Cells.

How a host metabolism responds to infection with insect viruses and how it relates to pathogenesis, is little investigated. Our previous study observed that Cricket paralysis virus (CrPV, Dicistroviridae) causes short term persistence in silkworm Bm5 cells before proceeding to acute infection. In this study, a metabolomics approach based on high resolution mass spectrometry was applied to investigate how a host metabolism is altered during the course of CrPV infection in Bm5 cells and which changes are characteristic for the transition from persistence to pathogenicity. We observed that CrPV infection led to significant and stage-specific metabolic changes in Bm5 cells. Differential metabolites abundance and pathway analysis further identified specific metabolic features at different stages in the viral life cycle. Notably, both glucose and glutamine levels significantly increased during CrPV persistent infection followed by a steep decrease during the pathogenic stages, suggesting that the central carbon metabolism was significantly modified during CrPV infection in Bm5 cells. In addition, dynamic changes in levels of polyamines were detected. Taken together, this study characterized for the first time the metabolic dynamics of CrPV infection in insect cells, proposing a central role for the regulation of both amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism during the period of persistent infection of CrPV in Bm5 cells.

Enteroendocrine peptides regulate feeding behavior via controlling intestinal contraction of the silkworm Bombyx mori.

Our previous study demonstrated that predominant feeding inhibitory effects were found in the crude extracts of foregut and midgut of the silkworm Bombyx mori larvae. To address the entero-intestinal control crucial for the regulation of insect feeding behavior, the present study identified and functionally characterized feeding inhibitory peptides from the midgut of B. mori larvae. Purification and structural analyses revealed that the predominant inhibitory factors in the crude extracts were allatotropin (AT) and GSRYamide after its C-terminal sequence. In situ hybridization revealed that AT and GSRYamide were expressed in enteroendocrine cells in the posterior and anterior midgut, respectively. Receptor screening using Ca2+-imaging technique showed that the B. mori neuropeptide G protein-coupled receptor (BNGR)-A19 and -A22 acted as GSRYamide receptors and BNGR-A5 acted as an additional AT receptor. Expression analyses of these receptors and the results of the peristaltic motion assay indicated that these peptides participated in the regulation of intestinal contraction. Exposure of pharynx and ileum to AT and GSRYamide inhibited spontaneous contraction in ad libitum-fed larvae, while exposure of pharynx to GSRYamide did not inhibit contraction in non-fed larvae, indicating that the feeding state changed their sensitivity to inhibitory peptides. These different responses corresponded to different expression levels of their receptors in the pharynx. In addition, injection of AT and GSRYamide decreased esophageal contraction frequencies in the melamine-treated transparent larvae. These findings strongly suggest that these peptides exert feeding inhibitory effects by modulating intestinal contraction in response to their feeding state transition, eventually causing feeding termination.

Identification of LARK as a novel and conserved G-quadruplex binding protein in invertebrates and vertebrates.

Double-stranded DNAs are usually present in the form of linear B-form double-helix with the base pairs of adenine (A) and thymine (T) or cytosine (C) and guanine (G), but G-rich DNA can form four-stranded G-quadruplex (G4) structures, which plays important roles in transcription, replication, translation and protection of telomeres. In this study, a RNA recognition motif (RRM)-containing protein, BmLARK, was identified and demonstrated to bind G4 structures in the promoters of a transcription factor BmPOUM2 and other three unidentified genes of Bombyx mori, as well as three well-defined G4 structures in the human genes. Homologous LARKs from Bombyx mori, Drosophila melanogaster, Mus musculus and Homo sapiens bound G4 structures in BmPOUM2 and other genes in B. mori and H. sapiens. Upon binding, LARK facilitated the formation and stability of the G4 structure, enhancing the transcription of target genes. The G4 structure was visualized in vivo in cells and testis from invertebrate B. mori and vertebrate Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. The results of this study strongly suggest that LARK is a novel and conserved G4-binding protein and that the G4 structure may have developed into an elaborate epigenetic mechanism of gene transcription regulation during evolution.

HN1L is essential for cell growth and survival during nucleopolyhedrovirus infection in silkworm, Bombyx mori.

Hematological and neurological expressed 1-like (HN1L) protein is an evolutionarily conserved protein that plays an important role in embryonic development. It has been reported that HN1L is involved in the process of cell growth and cancer formation and that cell cycle arrest occurs during suppression of HN1L expression. Previous studies have demonstrated that the expression levels of the Bombyx mori HN1L protein were significantly downregulated in Bombyx mori Nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) infected silkworm cells. Transient transfections were performed with plasmids for pIEX-1-HN1L expression in Bombyx mori ovarian cells (BmN) in order to explore the effect of the HN1L protein on the growth of silkworm cells and its regulatory role in the process of viral infection. Cellular localization analysis revealed that HN1L was localized in the cytoplasm and that its upregulation could significantly enhance cellular activity. Furthermore, HN1L could promote G1/S phase conversion, thereby contributing to cell proliferation. Upon infection of BmN cells with BmNPV, the induction of apoptosis increased, although HN1L overexpression could inhibit DNA fragmentation, suggesting that the HN1L protein could inhibit cell apoptosis induced by viral invasion. In addition, Western blotting indicated that the HN1L protein inhibited the activation of caspase-9 zymogen and the expression of Bax protein, although it promoted Bcl-2 expression. Flow cytometry analysis further confirmed that overexpression of HN1L significantly inhibited apoptosis induced by BmNPV infection. Consequently, we demonstrated that BmN HN1L is a protein with multiple functions, which enhanced cell activity, regulated the cell cycle and induced an anti-apoptotic response by BmNPV infection.

Bom-miR-2805 upregulates the expression of Bombyx mori fibroin light chain gene in vivo.

MicroRNAs (miRs) are inner regulatory RNAs mainly by regulating expression of genes at the posttranscriptional level. To investigate the regulatory function of Bombyx mori (B. mori) fibroin protein genes, the mRNA 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of fibroin light chain gene (BmFib-L) was used as the target and one miRNA, miR-2805 was predicted by using the Software. miR-2805 expression plasmid pcDNA3.0[ie1-egfp-pre-miR-2805-SV40] and BmFib-L 3'-UTR plasmid pGL3.0[A3-luc-Fib-L-3'-UTR-SV40] were constructed, respectively. The mentioned plasmids were cotransfected in BmN cells, and the regulatory function of miR-2805 on BmFib-L was detected by assay of dual luciferase activities, as well as synthesized mimic and inhibitor of miR-2805. The results revealed that miR-2805 significantly downregulated the expression of BmFib-L in BmN cells. To validate the function of miR-2805 in vivo, cultured silk glands or larvae were injected with solution containing pcDNA3.0[ie1-egfp-SV40], pcDNA3.0[ie1-egfp-pre-miR-2805-SV40], mimic, inhibitor respectively. BmFib-L expression was analyzed by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction using total RNAs extracted from silk glands. The results showed that miR-2805 significantly upregulated the expression of BmFib-L in both cultured tissues and individuals. To find out how miR-2805 differentially regulates BmFib-L expression in cells and tissues or individuals, we analyzed the expression level of transcription factors (TFs) involved in expression of silk protein genes. The results showed that miR-2805 upregulated the expression of TFs BmAwh and Bmdimm. These results suggest that miR-2805 may up-regulate the expression of BmFib-L interaction with BmAwh and/or Bmdimm in vivo. These findings are beneficial to clarify the molecular mechanism of miRNAs in regulating B. mori silk protein biosynthesis.

Effects of P27/Bmdacapo, in the CIP/KIP family, on cell proliferation, growth and development in the silkworm (Bombyx mori).

We investigated changes in expression of the CIP/KIP family-related genes and the cycle-dependent factors Pcna, Cdk4 and Cdk2 during the growth and development of mice, Drosophila and silkworms. When the organism was in a period of rapid development, the related genes of the CIP/KIP family had low expression level and the cell cycle-dependent genes were highly expressed. In mammals, the CIP/KIP family includes three genes, p21, p27/Dacapo and p57. However, only one gene, P27/Dacapo, exists in the CIP/KIP family in silkworm and the orthologous gene in the silkworm is named Bmdacapo. Down-regulation of Bmdacapo in silkworm embryos caused overdevelopment of the embryos and indicated that Bmdacapo can inhibit silkworm growth and development. Up-regulation of Bmdacapo in silkworm cells inhibited cell proliferation, whereas down-regulation of Bmdacapo promoted cell proliferation. In order to explore the mechanism of Bmdacapo regulated silkworm development and cell proliferation, the effect of Bmdacapo on cell cycle changes was examined. The results demonstrate that Bmdacapo was able to induce G1/S phase arrest in the cell cycle. In silkworm cells, Bmdacapo inhibits the expression of Pcna, CDK4 and CDK2, which affects the cell cycle and ultimately inhibits cell proliferation. This regulatory mechanism is particularly different from mammals.

Antiviral immune responses of Bombyx mori cells during abortive infection with Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus.

Lepidopteran cells rely on multiple antiviral responses to defend against baculovirus infections, including apoptosis, global protein synthesis shutdown, and rRNA degradation. Here, we characterized apoptosis and rRNA degradation in Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV)-infected Bombyx mori cells, a system resulting in abortive infection, in relation to viral DNA replication and viral late gene expression. RNAi-mediated silencing of viral DNA replication-related genes prevented apoptosis, but not rRNA degradation, in B. mori cells infected with p35-deficient AcMNPV. Additionally, AcMNPV, but not B. mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV), drastically reduced B. mori cellular iap1 transcript levels and p35-deficient AcMNPV induced more prominent apoptosis than did p35-deficient BmNPV. These results, together with previous results that global protein synthesis shutdown follows viral DNA replication, demonstrate that rRNA degradation is the primary antiviral response that abolishes productive AcMNPV infection of B. mori cells. Our results also demonstrate that B. mori cells induce apoptosis to a different extent depending on NPV species.

Cultured cells and wing disc size of silkworm can be controlled by the Hippo pathway.

Hippo signalling represents a cell proliferation and organ-size control pathway. Yorki (Yki), a component of the Hippo pathway, induces the transcription of a number of targets that promote cell proliferation and survival. The functions of Yki have been characterized in Drosophila and mammals, while there are few reports on silkworm, Bombyx mori In the present study, we found that BmYki3 facilitates cell migration and cell division, and enlarges the cultured cell and wing disc size. Co-immunoprecipitation results indicated that BmYki3 may interact with thymosin, E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase, protein kinase ASK1, dedicator of cytokinesis protein 1, calcium-independent phospholipase A2 and beta-spectrin. RNA-seq results indicated that 4444 genes were upregulated and 10 291 genes were downregulated after BmYki3 was overexpressed in the cultured cells. GO annotation indicated that the up/downregulated genes were enriched in 268/382 GO terms (p < 0.01); KEGG analysis showed that the up/downregulated genes were enriched in 49/101 pathways. These findings provided novel information to understand the functions of BmYki3 in a cell proliferation and organ-size control pathway.

Descending neurons from the lateral accessory lobe and posterior slope in the brain of the silkmoth Bombyx mori.

A population of descending neurons connect the brain and thoracic motor center, playing a critical role in controlling behavior. We examined the anatomical organization of descending neurons (DNs) in the brain of the silkmoth Bombyx mori. Moth pheromone orientation is a good model to investigate neuronal mechanisms of behavior. Based on mass staining and single-cell staining, we evaluated the anatomical organization of neurite distribution by DNs in the brain. Dense innervation was observed in the posterior-ventral part of the brain called the posterior slope (PS). We analyzed the morphology of DNs innervating the lateral accessory lobe (LAL), which is considered important for moth olfactory behavior. We observed that all LAL DNs also innervate the PS, suggesting the integration of signals from the LAL and PS. We also identified a set of DNs innervating the PS but not the LAL. These DNs were sensitive to the sex pheromone, suggesting a role of the PS in motor control for pheromone processing. Here we discuss the organization of descending pathways for pheromone orientation.

Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus ORF40 is essential for budded virus production and occlusion-derived virus envelopment.

ORF40 (bm40) of the Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) encodes a homologue of Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) AC51 and is a highly conserved gene in sequenced alphabaculoviruses. To investigate the role of bm40 in the baculovirus infection cycle, a bm40 knockout BmNPV bacmid was constructed via homologous recombination in Escherichia coli. Western blotting analysis revealed that bm40 is a late gene during virus infection. Compared with wild-type and repair viruses, the knockout virus exhibited a single-cell infection phenotype. Titration assays confirmed that no infectious budded viruses (BVs) were produced due to the bm40 deletion, while there was no effect on viral DNA replication. Electron microscopy revealed that Bm40 is required for nucleocapsid egress from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, nucleocapsid envelopment to form occlusion-derived viruses (ODVs) and subsequent embedding of ODVs into polyhedra. Confocal microscopy showed that Bm40 was predominantly localized in the nuclei from 48 h post-infection and subsequently condensed on the nuclear membrane and polyhedra at the late phase of infection. Taken together, these results demonstrate that Bm40 plays an essential role in BV production and ODV envelopment in the BmNPV infection cycle.

Hierarchical roles of mitochondrial Papi and Zucchini in Bombyx germline piRNA biogenesis.

PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are small regulatory RNAs that bind to PIWI proteins to control transposons and maintain genome integrity in animal germ lines. piRNA 3' end formation in the silkworm Bombyx mori has been shown to be mediated by the 3'-to-5' exonuclease Trimmer (Trim; known as PNLDC1 in mammals), and piRNA intermediates are bound with PIWI anchored onto mitochondrial Tudor domain protein Papi. However, it remains unclear whether the Zucchini (Zuc) endonuclease and Nibbler (Nbr) 3'-to-5' exonuclease, both of which have pivotal roles in piRNA biogenesis in Drosophila, are required for piRNA processing in other species. Here we show that the loss of Zuc in Bombyx had no effect on the levels of Trim and Nbr, but resulted in the aberrant accumulation of piRNA intermediates within the Papi complex, and that these were processed to form mature piRNAs by recombinant Zuc. Papi exerted its RNA-binding activity only when bound with PIWI and phosphorylated, suggesting that complex assembly involves a hierarchical process. Both the 5' and 3' ends of piRNA intermediates within the Papi complex showed hallmarks of PIWI 'slicer' activity, yet no phasing pattern was observed in mature piRNAs. The loss of Zuc did not affect the 5'- and 3'-end formation of the intermediates, strongly supporting the idea that the 5' end of Bombyx piRNA is formed by PIWI slicer activity, but independently of Zuc, whereas the 3' end is formed by the Zuc endonuclease. The Bombyx piRNA biogenesis machinery is simpler than that of Drosophila, because Bombyx has no transcriptional silencing machinery that relies on phased piRNAs.