Evaluating disparities in child occupant protection using a proportion-eliminated approach to mediation.

OBJECTIVE: While there are clear racial/ethnic disparities in child restraint system (CRS) use, to date no studies have identified mediators that quantitatively explain the relationship between race and CRS use. Therefore, the objective of this study was to provide an example of how a proportion-eliminated approach to mediation may be particularly useful in understanding the complex relationship between race and CRS use. METHODS: Sixty-two mothers with a child between 4-8 years old completed a survey and had their CRS use assessed by a Child Passenger Safety Technician using a structured assessment based on the 2018 American Academy of Pediatrics' Best Practice guidelines. Recruitment and data collection occurred in Birmingham, Alabama between June 2018 and January 2019. We used chi-squared tests, logistic regressions, and a proportion-eliminated approach to mediation to compare our variables of interest and to estimate the amount of the association between racial group membership and errors in restraint use that may be explained by sociodemographic, psychosocial, and parenting variables. RESULTS: Before mediation, Nonwhite mothers in this sample had a 7.38 greater odds of having an error in CRS use than White mothers. Mediation analyses indicated that being married and self-reported seatbelt use explained 47% and 35% of the effect of race on CRS use errors, respectively. CONCLUSION: A proportion-eliminated approach to mediation may be particularly useful in child passenger safety research aiming to inform the development of interventions tailored for racial minority populations.

Pediatric Safety Restraint Use in Motor Vehicle Crashes at a Level I Safety-Net Trauma Center.

BACKGROUND: Adherence to child passenger safety recommendations is essential to prevent death and injury in children involved in motor vehicle crashes. Parents may not undertake the proper safety measures, which can lead to increase injury. METHODS: A safety net, level I trauma center's database was used to identify admitted children (age<15 y/o) involved in motor vehicle crashes over a 2-y period to investigate safety restraint device use and compliance with state recommendations. Variables evaluated were crash characteristics, presence and method of passenger restraint, demographics, Glasgow Coma Scale, and Injury Severity Score. Excluded were patients where restraint characteristics could not be identified and those discharged from the trauma center. RESULTS: Eighty patients met inclusion criteria. Thirty-two (40%) children were unrestrained. Safety restraint device was noted in 48 (60%) children with 13 (27.1%) patients improperly restrained. The most common method of improper restraint (6, 46.2%) was traveling in the front seat before the age state law recommends. With respect to proper, improper, and no restraint, age (7.31 ± 14.26, 5.76 ± 3.24, P = 0.36), female sex (17, 8, 13, P = 0.32), low-income status (14, 5, 24, P = 0.28), and race (P = 0.08) did not differ between the groups. The unrestrained children had statistically lower initial Glasgow Coma Scale and higher Injury Severity Score and were more often involved in high-risk mechanism of Injury motor vehicle crashes. CONCLUSIONS: Despite recommendations and regulations regarding child passenger safety measures, there are a significant number of children that remain suboptimally restrained who are admitted to a safety-net trauma center. Further research is needed to understand the barriers to increase the compliance with recommendations along with targeted educational campaigns in low-compliance populations.

Variations in booster seat use by child characteristics.

INTRODUCTION: Child weight and height are the basis of manufacturer and best practice guidelines for child restraint system use. However, these guides do not address behavioral differences among children of similar age, weight, and height, which may result in child-induced restraint use errors. The objective of this study was to characterize child behaviors across age in relation to appropriate restraint system use during simulated drives. METHODS: Fifty mother-child (4-8 years) dyads completed an installation into a driving simulator, followed by a simulated drive that was video-recorded and coded for child-induced errors. Time inappropriately restrained was measured as the total amount of the simulated drive spent in an improper or unsafe position for the restraint to be effective divided by the total drive time. Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to determine differences across age in the frequency of error events and overall time inappropriately restrained. RESULTS: Children in harnessed seats had no observed errors during trips. Within children sitting in booster seats there were differences in time inappropriately restrained across age (p = 0.01), with 4 year-olds spending on average 67% (Median = 76%) of the drive inappropriately restrained, compared to the rest of the age categories spending less than 28% (Medians ranged from 3% to 23%). CONCLUSION: Some children may be physically compatible with booster seats, but not behaviorally mature enough to safely use them. More research is needed that examines how child behavior influences child passenger safety. Practical Applications: Not all children physically big enough are behaviorally ready to use belt positioning booster seats. Primary sources of information should provide caregivers with individualized guidance about when it is appropriate to transition children out of harnessed seats. Additionally, best practice guidelines should be updated to reflect what behaviors are needed from children to safely use specific types of child restraint systems.

Effectiveness of child restraint legislation to reduce motor vehicle related serious injuries and fatalities: A national interrupted time series analysis.

Children that are unrestrained while travelling in a motor vehicle are more vulnerable to serious injury and death. The greatest levels of crash protection are achieved when children use the most age or size appropriate form of restraint. In this study, we aimed to examine the effectiveness of the introduction of age-appropriate child restraint legislation on serious and fatal injury in five Australian states and territories. For this interrupted time series analysis, we used a segmented regression method to assess the association between the implementation of child-restraint legislation and motor-vehicle related serious injuries and fatalities using data obtained from transport authorities in each jurisdiction. We estimated the change in annual rates after the implementation of legislation with the number of motor-vehicle accidents resulting in fatalities or serious injuries as the outcome, and the total number of injuries (minor, serious and fatal) as an offset in the model. We identified 10882 motor-vehicle related crashes resulting in fatalities (n = 188), serious injuries (n = 1730) and minor injuries (n = 8964). In NSW and VIC, the rate ratio was statistically significant and positive, indicating an increase in the rate of serious injuries and fatalities in the period post-legislation compared to the period prior to legislation. In all other states and territories, we did not find a statistically significant effect of legislation Road safety programs incorporating interventions targeted at increasing awareness of optimal restraint practices, strengthened enforcement and measures to improve the affordability of restraints are needed to support legislation.

Prevalence of child passenger restraint use in Shantou, China from 2012 to 2017.

BACKGROUND: Child passenger safety is an important public health problem in China. This study aimed to examine the prevalence of child passenger restraint use while riding in a car in the city of Shantou in China from 2012 to 2017. METHODS: Three large-scale cross-sectional observational studies were conducted in 2012, 2015 and 2017, respectively. The observation sites included randomly selected hospitals, kindergartens, and primary and secondary schools. The outcome measures included the changes in percentages of seating position (e.g., front vs. rear), whether sitting on lap, and use of child restraint systems (CRS) or seat belts by year and by age group. Descriptive statistics, Chi-square tests and logistic regression were used to address the study aims. RESULTS: A total of 9858 commuting children aged 17 and younger were observed in passenger cars in Shantou, China during the study. The proportion of children aged 0-5 sitting on adult's lap decreased from 26.6% in 2012 to 24.6% in 2017, while the proportion of CRS use among the children sitting in the rear row increased among children aged 0-5 (from 0.7% in 2012 to 14.2% in 2017) and children aged 6-11 (from 0.7% in 2012 to 2.4% in 2017). Comparing children aged 0-11 in 2012, children in the same ages were less likely to sit in the front row in 2015 (OR = 0.42, 95%CI = 0.37, 0.48) and in 2017 (OR = 0.27, 95%CI = 0.23, 0.31). Children aged 0-11 were more likely to sit in the rear row with CRS use in 2015 (OR = 8.50, 95%CI = 5.44, 13.28) and in 2017 (OR = 10.95, 95%CI = 7.02, 17.08) comparing with children in the same ages in 2012. As for children aged 12-17, they were more likely to use seat belt in 2017 (OR = 1.40, 95%CI = 1.06, 1.85) compared with those children in 2012. CONCLUSIONS: While child passenger safety behaviors improved from 2012 to 2017 in Shantou, China, more efforts are needed to protect child passengers from injuries.

Awareness, perception and experience on child restraint system (CRS) and its legislation among Malaysian parents with newborns.

Objective: The aim of this study was to explore parents' awareness and usage of CRS, incentives and challenges in CRS use, as well as their perception about potential CRS legislation in Malaysia.Methods: This was a cross-sectional study conducted in a public tertiary care center in Northern Malaysia. A self-developed researcher-assisted questionnaire was developed in English and translated into Malay language, to explore parents' awareness ad CRS usage, as well as the incentives and barriers in CRS use. Parents of a newborn were conveniently sampled, excluding parents with pre-term newborn or those without a car. Upon obtaining written informed consent, the parents were allowed to answer the questionnaire within 20 minutes, assisted by the researchers. Parents who were found not using CRS for their newborn were given a digital pamphlet with CRS-related information via mobile devices.Results: A total of 200 parents were approached and 193 of them consented to participate in this study. The majority of the parents (87.6%) were aware of CRS, but only half of them (57.0%) provided a CRS for their current newborn. From 100 CRS users, most of them used a CRS for "child's safety" purposes (84.5%). Among 83 CRS nonuser, nearly half of them (45.8%) perceived that it is adequate to carry their child during traveling without using a CRS. When exploring previous experience in using CRS among all parents (n = 193), more than half of them (63.9%) faced difficulty as their child refused to use the CRS. More than half (54.9%) of all parents were not aware about the possible CRS legislation in Malaysia. However, the majority of them (90.7%) agreed with the implementation of CRS law.Conclusions: Although majority of the parents were aware about CRS, but only half had a CRS for their current newborn. Most of the parents supported CRS legislation in Malaysia, but assistance will be required to help them through challenges related to CRS use.

Infant car seat use in Japan after the antepartum distribution of an educational leaflet: A prospective, nonrandomized controlled trial with a questionnaire survey.

Objective: To determine whether an antepartum educational leaflet distributed to parents before infant delivery affected the rate of infant car-seat (ICS) use 1 month after delivery, because to the best of our knowledge, only few reports have evaluated systematic attempts to improve the rate of always ICS use by mothers driving infantsMethods: A multicenter questionnaire survey targeting pregnant Japanese women seeking antenatal care at the outpatient clinics of eight hospitals was designed. Women enrolled during the first half of the study period did not receive leaflets describing ICS safety guidelines (control group). Women enrolled during the latter half of the study period received the leaflet between gestational week 35 and 37 (intervention group). All women were requested to anonymously respond to the questionnaires within 1 month postpartum. The rates of ICS use, position, and direction after delivery were compared between both groups.Results: Of the 3534 women who responded to the questionnaire survey (response rate, 81.9%), 1772 women (50.1%) were assigned to the intervention group and 1762 (49.9%) women to the control group. The rates of ICS attachments (86.8% vs. 82.4% in the intervention and control groups, respectively, p = 0.0003), always ICS use (80.5% vs. 76.2%, respectively, p = 0.0019), ICS placement on the rear seat (78.6% vs. 74.1%, respectively, p = 0.0020), and ICS placement in a rear-facing position (62.2% vs. 56.7%, respectively, p = 0.0008) were significantly higher in the intervention group than those in the control group. The motor vehicle accident (MVA) rates within 1 month postpartum were similar between the intervention and control groups (0.51% vs. 0.57%, respectively, p = 0.8229).Conclusions: Antepartum minimal intervention via the distribution of an educational leaflet recommending ICS safety guidelines was associated with increased rates of ICS attachments, always ICS use, and ICS placement on the rear seat and in rear-facing positions; however, it did not contribute to reduced MVA rates after delivery.

Safety seat and seat belt use among child motor vehicle occupants, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.

BACKGROUND: Use of seat belts and car seats for children are among the most effective interventions to reduce injury severity when a crash occurs. The use should be enforced in order to have an increase in wearing these restraints. Romania has the lowest rate of using seatbelts in the backseat, 16%. The purpose of the study is to describe the use of child safety restraints and compare it with existing standards of good practice. METHODS: An observational study on child safety restraint was conducted in Cluj-Napoca, Romania, between 2013 and 2014. Observational sites included 38 schools and kindergartens and three commercial areas, where drivers (n=768) and child passengers (n=892) were observed. Observations were conducted as vehicles parked or pulled to a stop and were followed by driver surveys on knowledge and attitudes towards restraint legislation and child safety behaviour as car occupants. RESULTS: The proportion of observed child motor vehicle occupants wearing some type of restraint was 67.4% (n=601). The majority of children (82.6%) were in the back seat, and 14.2% of infants were in a rear-facing child seat. The proportion of restrained children declined with age, with children 5 years old or younger being almost five times more likely to be properly restrained (OR 4.87, 95% CI 2.93 to 8.07) when compared with older children. CONCLUSIONS: Although minimum legal requirements of child motor vehicle occupant safety were in place in Romania at the time of the study, the rates of using children restraints was low compared with other middle-income and high-income countries.

Child passenger fatality: Child restraint system usage and contributing factors among the youngest passengers from 2011 to 2015.

OBJECTIVE: Motor-vehicle crashes (MVC) remain a leading cause of preventable injury and death for children aged 0-3 in the United States. Despite advancement in legislation and public awareness there is continued evidence of inappropriate child restraint system (CRS) use among the youngest passengers. The current study focuses on appropriate CRS use from 2011 to 2015 using data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) for children aged 0-3. METHODS: Child-, driver-, vehicle-, and trip-related characteristics were investigated within a sample of 648 children from 625 crashes over 5-years in which a child aged 0-3 was fatally injured while unrestrained or wearing an identified CRS type. Multivariable log-binomial regression was used to obtain relative risk. RESULTS: Only 48% of the fatally injured children were appropriately restrained in a CRS. Premature transition to a booster seat and seat belt was evident. The largest proportion of rear-facing restraint use was reported in <1 year olds (40%), with less reported in 1 (11%) and 2 year olds (2%) and no usage in 3 year olds. Younger children were more likely to be in an appropriate CRS, while Black children, driver not restrained in a lap-shoulder belt configuration, and riding in a pickup truck were less likely to be restrained appropriately. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence of inappropriate CRS use supports the use of more stringent legislation and parental interventions to communicate best practice recommendations and educate caregivers regarding appropriate child restraint methods. Practical applications: Public health campaigns focused on increasing appropriate restraint use in children are of great importance as optimally restrained children are less likely to sustain injuries, or require crash-related hospitalization compared to unrestrained children. Researchers and practitioners may find these surveillance findings essential when developing education and interventions targeting child-parent dyads at the greatest risk for a MVC-related fatality.

Systematic review of child restraint system interventions (2007-2018).

Objective: To systematically review and summarize articles evaluating the effectiveness of child restraint system (CRS) interventions targeting parents/caregivers' knowledge of, overall rates of and/or proper use of CRSs published in a recent time period.Methods: Using multiple databases, we identified peer-reviewed journal articles published between January 1, 2007 and December 31, 2018 using selected key search terms. Inclusion criteria were: (1) evaluation of an intervention/program for child passenger safety targeting a parent or caregiver of a child (2) quantitative data-based results (i.e., change in knowledge, behavior, or observed outcomes), (3) English-language, and (4) peer-reviewed journal publication. Through a systematic review process and peer consensus, n = 23 articles met inclusion criteria. References of these articles were reviewed for inclusion using the same process and n = 12 additional articles were identified.Results: A total of n = 35 articles met inclusion criteria. Of the n = 35 articles, n = 9 were randomized controlled trials (RCTs), n = 4 were cluster RCTs, n = 11 were nonrandomized trials, and n = 11 were pretest post-test studies. Types of interventions included face-to-face education (n = 26), web/video-based education (n = 8) or written educational materials (n = 1). Of the articles reviewed, n = 20 involved distribution of free or subsidized CRSs to some or all subjects. N = 20 articles involved trained CRS technicians and/or CRS installation check-points. In terms of outcomes measured, n = 3 articles assessed changes in knowledge of CRS use, n = 22 assessed changes in CRS behaviors (which includes self-report or observed behavior change), and n = 10 assessed changes in both CRS knowledge and behaviors. All articles (n = 3) that measured changes in knowledge as their only outcome demonstrated positive effects while articles measuring behavioral outcomes (self-report or observed) (n = 32) had mixed results.Conclusions: This review included a wide range of articles of heterogeneous methodologies, sample sizes, and outcomes measured. Although different approaches to CRS interventions were effective in increasing awareness and knowledge, the effects on CRS use behaviors - whether self-reported or observed - were mixed. Future research is needed to increase appropriate CRS use and reduce the burden of motor vehicle crash-related injuries among children.

Effects of child restraint misuse on dynamic performance.

Objective: Estimates of child restraint misuse rates in the United States range from 49% to 95%, but not all misuse modes have similar consequences in terms of restraint effectiveness. A series of laboratory sled tests was conducted to determine the effects of common misuses and combinations of misuses, including loose harness, loose installation, incorrect installation angle, incorrect belt path, loose/no tether, and incorrect harness clip usage.Methods: Three commercial convertible child restraint models were loaded with the Hybrid III 3-year-old anthropomorphic test device (ATD) and secured by either LATCH or seat belt on a modified FMVSS No. 213 bench. Tests were conducted in forward-facing (FF) and rear-facing (RF) modes. The response variables included ATD accelerations, excursions, and restraint kinematics. Belt/LATCH loads, tether loads, ATD kinematics, and restraint structural response data were also documented. A fractional factorial test design on 8 factors was used to define an initial series of 32 tests. The first series also included 4 tests of correct CRS, 2 forward facing and 2 rearward facing. The analysis of those data determined the selection of conditions for the remaining 20 tests to focus on factors and interactions of high interest and significance.Results: In the RF condition, misrouting the LATCH belt or seat belt through the incorrect belt path was the only misuse that significantly affected outcomes of interest and was associated with high levels of undesirable CRS rotation. In FF tests, loose installation and tether misuse had large adverse effects on 3 of 4 key response variables.Conclusion: The study provides strong evidence for prioritizing tight restraint installation and proper tether use for FF restraints. In particular, use of the tether helped offset the adverse effects of loose installation or loose harness. Because the results show that performance of a RF child restraint system (CRS) installation is less affected by user error, they also provide support for extended RF restraint use. In addition, packaging convertible child restraints with the LATCH belt routed through the RF belt path could help prevent the most consequential RF CRS misuse.

Assessment of Caregiver-Targeted Interventions for Use of Motor Vehicle Passenger Safety Systems for Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Importance: Caregiver-targeted interventions to improve the use of child restraint systems (CRS) in motor vehicles are common and heterogeneous in their implementation. The effectiveness of these interventions is unknown. Objectives: To quantify the effects of caregiver-targeted interventions using meta-analytic methods, assess the quality of published studies, and assess for publication bias. Data Sources: PubMed and PsychINFO (January 1, 2004, to April 1, 2019) were searched for English-language studies using a list of search terms. The search and screening process was completed between May 25, 2018, and April 1, 2019. Study Selection: Studies met inclusion criteria if they included a caregiver-targeted intervention that focused on increasing CRS use for children (age, ≤9 years) and report the use of CRS before and after the intervention. Data Extraction and Syntheses: Cochrane and PRISMA guidelines were used for the meta-analysis and risk-of-bias review. Information was extracted on intervention type, setting, implementation, and attributes of the study independently between 2 coders. Data were pooled from independent samples, with 1 outcome measure from each intervention implementation or study. Main Outcomes and Measures: This study was an exploratory random-effects meta-analysis. Unadjusted odds ratios were calculated using the sample size and the observed number of children in incorrect or correct restraints in motor vehicles before and after the intervention to determine the odds of incorrect CRS use after completing an intervention. Setting, measurement method, randomization, use of vouchers, and types of restraint were tested as moderators. A funnel plot was used to assess for publication bias. Results: Of 1240 potential articles, 51 were deemed eligible for screening and 10 (8238 participants total) were included in the meta-analysis. Caregiver-targeted interventions were associated with a reduction in the number of children not riding in a CRS (odds ratio, 0.51; 95% CI, 0.36-0.71; P < .001). Variance in the averaged effect size was driven by self-report methods (when removed from analyses, I2 = 61.8%; R2 change = 26.3; P = .02) and hospital settings (when removed from analyses, I2 = 70.7%; R2 change = 17.4; P = .002). Risk of bias was high in most studies; however, there was low evidence for publication bias. Conclusions and Relevance: In this meta-analysis, caregiver-targeted interventions were associated with a reduction in the number of children not riding in a CRS in motor vehicles; however, the methodological rigor of intervention studies should be enhanced.

Determinants of child safety seat use among parents in an International Safe Community, Tehran, Iran.

Objective: Road traffic accidents are a global issue and serious threat for public health. Children are at high risk of serious injury or death from motor vehicle crashes. Child safety seats (CSSs) can reduce the risk of death and serious injury in children. This study was done to determine the prevalence of child safety seat use in vehicles and the factors influencing their use in a safe society (Tehran, Iran) in 2015.Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 804 parents with children under 12 years old who owned private cars were questioned in different areas of Tehran. A questionnaire included demographic data, and 2 specific questionnaires were used for families that used a CSS and those did not use a CSS. Univariate and multivariate binary logistic regression analyses were conducted. Crude and adjusted odds ratios (AORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. All analyses were carried out using SPSS 21.Results: The prevalence of child safety seat use was 18.7% and was significantly higher among parents with an income greater than 50 million rials/month, parents who received child safety seat recommendations, parents living in the north of Tehran, and fathers with more driving experience. Age, weight, and height of children were also factors that influenced the use of child safety seats. The most common reasons for parents to use child safety seats was awareness about the benefits of this device and fear of harm to the child, and the most common reasons for nonuse were child intolerance while sitting in the seat and cost.Conclusion: The prevalence of child safety seat use in Tehran is very low, and most parents are not aware of the importance of child safety seats. Comprehensive programs, including legislation, law enforcement, public education, and publicity to promote the benefits of using CSSs, in Tehran can be an effective step toward increasing the use of child safety devices.

Car seat survey at a children's hospital: need a booster?

AIM: Child restraint practices among New Zealand children have fallen short of best practice recommendations. In 2013, New Zealand child restraint legislation was amended. The aim of the present study was to determine the child restraint practices of a cohort of children admitted to hospital and how practices have changed since the amendment in child restraint legislation. METHODS: We conducted interviews with the parents of 300 paediatric inpatients aged 0-13 years. Data were recorded on their child's usual child restraint use, the restraint used during their trip to hospital, and parental knowledge of child restraint law and best practice recommendations. We compared their responses with those of our survey published in 2013, which was performed before the amendment in child restraint legislation. RESULTS: The median age of the 300 children was three years: 181 (60%) were aged 0-4 years, 65 (22%) 5-9 years and 54 (18%) 10-13 years. One hundred and thirty-six (45%) were girls. Of children <5 years of age, 97% always used a child restraint. Of children 5-9 years of age, 60% always used a child restraint, 12% sometimes and 28% never. A significantly greater proportion of 5-9 year-old children used a child restraint at least some of the time in the present study compared to the 2013 study (47/65 versus 27/53, OR 2.49 [95%CI 1.09-5.81]). Child restraint use declined in children <6 years of age. On their journey to hospital, five children used no restraint, four of whom were held in the arms of a caregiver. Parental knowledge of child restraint recommendations correlated inversely with their compliance with the recommendations (OR 0.33 [95%CI 0.11-0.91]). CONCLUSIONS: Consideration should be given to extending child restraint legislation to children older than seven years of age. Further studies could explore the barriers parents face to the use of child restraints and the potential effect of extending child restraint laws to older children.

Factors affecting use and nonuse of child safety car seats in Gorgan, Iran.

Objective: Motor vehicle accidents, which are among the main causes of child mortality in Iran and the Middle East, impose staggering costs for the community. Ignoring use of safety devices for children in most motor vehicle crashes will lead to death or serious injury. Because few studies have been performed on effective and predictive factors regarding use of child safety seats, the purpose of this study was to examine the factors affecting the use and nonuse of child safety seats, along with the factors that can facilitate how a child safety seat is used. Method: This study was conducted in the urban area of Gorgan using a questionnaire. Through random selection, 204 parents with at least one child, aged 8 years or younger, reported their knowledge about the benefits of using a child safety seat. Results: The results showed that 80% of parents never use a child safety seat, and 13% always use a child safety seat. More than 93% thought that it was necessary to make usage of the child safety seat obligatory. In addition, 80% of parents believed that a child safety seat prevents children from injury in crashes. In addition, 38% of parents were not aware of child safety devices and child safety, less than 20% said that they did not use a child safety seat because their spouse did not support its use, and 28% of them thought that a child safety seat does not affect the safety of the child. In general, 91% of parents reported that if child safety seat use were mandated, the frequency of use would increase. A law on the use of child safety seats is a very important variable in their use, which can enhance the chance of using a child safety seat by 6.5 times. Conclusion: Special instructions should be developed to create incentive strategies for using a child safety seat. Mandating the use of a child safety seat, equipping cars with a child safety seat, encouraging children to use it, and providing continuous education and training are important factors for increasing the use of child safety seats.

A bivariate probit analysis of child passenger's sitting behaviour and restraint use in motor vehicle.

Motor vehicle injuries are a leading cause of death among children worldwide, though many of these deaths are preventable. Buckling young children in age- and size-appropriate car seats, booster seats, or seat belts and also seating them in appropriate position can lead to a significant reduction of serious and fatal injuries. This study investigated sitting behaviour and restraint use among child passengers through cross-sectional observational surveys conducted in Kumasi, Ghana. A bivariate probit model was developed for simultaneous determination of the contributing factors influencing child passenger's sitting behaviour and restraint use. The results showed that 26% of the child passengers observed were occupying the front seat and the prevalence rate of restraint use was 4.5%. The developed bivariate probit model clearly highlights the existence of interrelationship between child passenger's sitting position and restraint use. The key factors simultaneously influencing child passenger's sitting position and restraint use include vehicle type, driver's gender, driver's belt use, child's age, and the presence of other child or adult passenger. Furthermore, time of day and day of week also influence child passenger sitting behaviour but not their restraint use. These findings provide insight for better understanding of child transporting practices and the contributing factors influencing their sitting behaviour and restraint use. The findings also highlight the need for policy makers to design effective countermeasures to promote rear sitting and restraint use among child passengers.

Mapping Child Safety Seat Use in Cases of Fatal or Incapacitating Child Motor Vehicle Injury in Cook County, Illinois from 2011 to 2015.

Child safety seat use reduces the risk of fatal injury by 71% for infants and 54% for toddlers, yet more than one-third of child passengers killed in traffic crashes in the US are unrestrained. Nearly half (47%) of crash injuries occur within 5 miles of the injured person's home. Mapping the location of motor vehicle crashes resulting in serious or fatal injury to unrestrained child passengers may pinpoint high-risk neighborhoods. Illinois Department of Transportation data were used to map crashes that resulted in a fatal or incapacitating injury to a child passenger (age 0 to 8) in Cook County, IL from 2011 to 2015. Maptitude® Geographic Information System (GIS) software was used to identify hot spots of unrestrained child passenger injury on the South Side and West Side of Chicago. Of 174 zip codes in Cook County, 3 zip codes on the South Side of Chicago (60620, 60621; 60628) accounted for 11% of the total unrestrained fatalities and incapacitating injuries among children. Results of this study reveal the feasibility of detecting geographic disparities in child passenger safety at the zip code and neighborhood level and indicate the potential for more targeted allocation of resources.

Cervical and thoracic spine injury in pediatric motor vehicle crash passengers.

OBJECTIVE: Motor vehicle occupants aged 8 to 12 years are in transition, in terms of both restraint use (booster seat or vehicle belt) and anatomical development. Rear-seated occupants in this age group are more likely to be inappropriately restrained than other age groups, increasing their vulnerability to spinal injury. The skeletal anatomy of an 8- to 12-year-old child is also in developmental transition, resulting in spinal injury patterns that are unique to this age group. The objective of this study is to identify the upper spine injuries commonly experienced in the 8- to 12-year-old age group so that anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs) representing this size of occupant can be optimized to predict the risk of these injuries. METHODS: Motor vehicle crash cases from the National Trauma Data Bank (NTDB) were analyzed to characterize the location and nature of cervical and thoracic spine injuries in 8- to 12-year-old crash occupants compared to younger (age 0-7) and older age groups (age 13-19, 20-39). RESULTS: Spinal injuries in this trauma center data set tended to occur at more inferior vertebral levels with older age, with patients in the 8- to 12-year-old group diagnosed with thoracic injury more frequently than cervical injury, in contrast to younger occupants, for whom the proportion of cases with cervical injury outnumbered the proportion of cases with thoracic injury. With the cervical spine, a higher proportion of 8- to 12-year-olds had upper spine injury than adults, but a substantially lower proportion of 8- to 12-year-olds had upper spine injury than younger children. In terms of injury type, the 8- to 12-year-old group's injury patterns were more similar to those of teens and adults, with a higher relative proportion of fracture than younger children, who were particularly vulnerable to dislocation and soft tissue injuries. However, unlike for adults and teens, catastrophic atlanto-occipital dislocations were still more common than any other type of dislocation for 8- to 12-year-olds and vertebral body fractures were particularly frequent in this age group. CONCLUSIONS: Spinal injury location in the cervical and thoracic spine moved downward with age in this trauma center data set. This shift in injury pattern supports the need for measurement of thoracic and lower cervical spine loading in ATDs representing the 8- to 12-year-old age group.

Pilot Trial of an Emergency Department-based Intervention to Promote Child Passenger Safety Best Practices.

BACKGROUND: Despite demonstrated effectiveness of child restraint systems (CRSs), use remains suboptimal. In this randomized pilot trial, we sought to determine the feasibility, acceptability, and potential efficacy of "Tiny Cargo, Big Deal" an ED-based intervention to promote guideline-concordant size-appropriate CRS use. METHODS: Parents of children < 11 years old were recruited in two EDs and randomized in a 2 × 2 factorial design to four conditions: 1) generic information sheet, 2) tailored brochure mailed after the ED visit, 3) a single motivational interviewing-based counseling session in the ED, and 4) full intervention (counseling session plus tailored brochure). We assessed feasibility (recruitment, completion, follow-up rates) and acceptability (parent attitudes, uptake of information) in the ED, at 1 month and at 6 months. We obtained preliminary estimates of effect sizes of the intervention components on appropriate CRS use at 6-month follow-up. RESULTS: Of the 514 parents assessed for eligibility, 456 met inclusion criteria and 347 consented to participate. Enrolled parents were mostly mothers (88.1%); 48.7% were 18 to 29 years old; 52.5% were non-Hispanic, white; and 65.2% reported size-appropriate CRS use. Completion rates were 97.7% for baseline survey, 81.6% for counseling, 51.9% for 1-month follow-up, and 59.3% for 6-month follow-up. In the ED, 70.5% rated thinking about child passenger safety in the ED as very helpful. At 1 month, 70.0% expressed positive attitudes toward the study. Of 132 parents who reported receiving study mailings, 78.9% reviewed the information. Parents randomized to the full intervention demonstrated an increase (+6.12 percentage points) and other groups a decrease (-1.69 to -9.3 percentage points) in the proportion of children reported to use a size-appropriate CRS at 6-month follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Suboptimal CRS use can be identified and intervened upon during a child's ED visit. A combined approach with ED-based counseling and mailed tailored brochures shows promise to improve size-appropriate CRS use.