Dietary exposure assessment and risk characterization of citrinin and ochratoxin A in Belgium.

Exposure to mycotoxins is a worldwide problem. To ensure public health, it is imperative to characterize the risks related to these toxins. The present study aims to conduct a dietary exposure assessment of citrinin (CIT) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in the Belgian population using consumption data of a variety of foodstuffs. A total of 367 food samples from different food categories were collected in Belgian supermarkets and analysed for CIT and OTA using a validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. Daily CIT and OTA exposure to the Belgian population was calculated based on the analytical results and food consumption data in three age categories (3-9, 10-17 and 18-64 years), obtained from a national food consumption survey. Furthermore, a risk characterization was performed for CIT, in which no intake values exceeded the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 200 ng kg-1 bw day-1, indicating no health risk. However, a CIT intake level of 187 ng kg-1 bw day-1 was detected for children in the age category of 3-9 years in the worst case scenario for rice, indicating that rice consumption could contain a potential health hazard for young children. For OTA, a potential health risk was detected in several food categories (biscuits, croissants, rice, flour, meat imitates, herbs and spices) in the higher percentiles (P99) or at maximum found concentrations when calculating the margin of exposure (MoE) for neoplastic effects. An attempt to perform a cumulative health risk assessment for both toxins was done. Although a high number of uncertainties is involved, combined margin of exposure (MoET) values indicated a potential health risk related to the combined exposure to CIT and OTA. For the first time, our study demonstrated the potential health risks of CIT and OTA after individual and combined exposure, in particular related to rice consumption. Moreover, further research is recommended concerning multiple mycotoxin exposure in young children.

The protective effect of stilbenes resveratrol and pterostilbene individually and combined with mycotoxin citrinin in human adenocarcinoma HT-29 cell line in vitro.

This study was focused to determine an individual and combined effect of mycotoxin citrinin (CIT) and two compounds of the stilbene family- resveratrol (RES) and his dimethyl ether analogue pterostilbene (PTE) which have many health benefits. As a model the human adenocarcinoma cell line HT-29 was used which may exhibits the properties of small intestine cells. Viability, plasma membrane integrity, lysosomal functionality, intracellular production of superoxide anions and superoxide dismutase activity were examined. The results indicate that concentrations of 50 and 100 µg/mL of the tested compounds were cytotoxic in mostly monitored parameters and probably caused apoptosis. HT-29 cells were more sensitive to PTE than to RES with a higher antioxidant effect of PTE than RES, which may be caused by its chemical structure. Both stilbenes at medium doses act as effective superoxide anions scavengers leading to reduction of oxidative stress and consequent cell damage. The nontoxic concentration of RES (25 µg/mL) protects the HT-29 cell line faced to the toxicity of CIT at 25 µg/mL by increasing viability of cells and by reducing the superoxide production induced by CIT concentrations of 12.5 µg/mL and 25 µg/mL.

Subchronic exposure to individual and combined ochratoxin A and citrinin affects the expression of rat renal organic anion transporters.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) and citrinin (CIT) are mycotoxins known to co-contaminate human/animal food/feed. Their prominent nephrotoxic effects pose a threat to human and animal health. Studies have shown synergistic or additive effects of these two mycotoxins, but a clear consensus on this phenomenon does not exist. In vitro/vivo studies on OTA and CIT effects showed they elevate oxidative stress parameters. Some in vitro studies tested resveratrol (RSV) as a potential antioxidant to counteract these OTA and CIT effects. However, data on the combined effects of OTA + CIT mycotoxins and RSV on their in vivo toxicity is lacking. We used immunofluorescence microscopy and Western blotting to study the subchronic effects of individual/combined OTA (0.125 and 0.250 mg kg-1 b.w.) and CIT (20 mg kg-1 b.w.) on the localization/expression of rat renal organic anion transporters (rOats) (rOat1/Slc22a6, rOat2/Slc22a7, rOat3/Slc22a8, rOat5/Slc22a19) that mediate the secretion/reabsorption of organic anions in kidney proximal tubules. We investigated if RSV (20 mg kg-1 b.w.) can counteract the effects of both mycotoxins on the localization/expression of studied transporters. Results revealed Oat- and dose-dependent changes in protein expression of rOats. When combined with both mycotoxins, RSV decreased the protein expression of all of the studied rOats. Its effect was additive on Oat1/2/5. Thus, RSV failed to ameliorate OTA- and/or CIT-related nephrotoxic effects on the expression of studied rOats in rat kidneys.

Combined Inhibitory Effects of Citrinin, Ochratoxin-A, and T-2 Toxin on Aquaporin-2.

Aquaporins form a large family of transmembrane protein channel that facilitates selective and fast water transport across the cell membrane. The inhibition of aquaporin channels leads to many water-related diseases such as nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, edema, cardiac arrest, and stroke. Herein, we report the molecular mechanism of mycotoxins (citrinin, ochratoxin-A, and T-2 mycotoxin) inhibition of aquaporin-2 (AQP2) and arginine vasopressin receptor 2. Molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulations, quantum chemical calculations, residue conservation-coupling analysis, sequence alignment, and in vivo studies were utilized to explore the binding interactions between the mycotoxins and aquaporin-2. Theoretical studies revealed that the electrostatic interactions induced by the toxins pulled the key residues (187Arg, 48Phe, 172His, and 181Cys) inward, hence reduced the pore diameter and water permeation. The permeability coefficient of the channel was reduced from native ((3.32 ± 0.75) × 10-14 cm3/s) to toxin-treated AQP2 ((1.08 ± 0.03) × 10-14 cm3/s). The hydrogen bonds interruption and formation of more hydrogen bonds with toxins also led to the reduced number of water permeation. Further, in vivo studies showed renal damages and altered level of aquaporin expression in mycotoxin-treated Mus musculus. Furthermore, the multiple sequence alignments among the model organism along with evolutionary coupling analysis provided the information about the interdependences of the residues in the channel.

Regulation of the antioxidant system in cells of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe after combined treatment with patulin and citrinin.

The effects of combined treatment with patulin (PAT) and citrinin (CTN) on Schizosaccharomyces pombe cells were investigated in acute toxicity tests. In comparison with the controls the exposure of fission yeast cells (10(7) cells ml(-1)) to PAT + CTN (250 µM each) for 1 h at a survival rate of 66.6% significantly elevated the concentration of total reactive oxygen species (ROS) via increased levels of peroxides without affecting the concentrations of superoxides or the hydroxyl radical. This treatment induced a 3.08-fold increase in the specific concentration of glutathione and elevated specific activities of catalase and glutathione S-transferase, while at the same time the activity of glutathione reductase decreased. The pattern of the ROS was the same as that induced by CTN (Máté et al., 2014), while the presence of PAT in the PAT + CTN combination treatment modified the activities of the antioxidant system (Papp et al., 2012) in comparison with the individual PAT or CTN treatment, suggesting toxin-specific regulation of glutathione and the enzymes of the antioxidant system and the possibility that the transcription factor (pap1 and atf1) -regulated processes might be influenced directly by ROS.

Effect of feeding graded doses of citrinin on apoptosis and oxidative stress in male Wistar rats through the F1 generation.

The objective of the present study was to study the effect of graded doses of citrinin (CIT) on apoptosis and oxidative stress in male Wistar rats till F1 generation. The animals were divided into four groups comprising 25 males and 25 females each, that is, group I: 1 ppm CIT; group II: 3 ppm CIT; group III: 5 ppm CIT; and group IV was kept as a control. The male and female animals of all the groups were kept separately and were fed basal rations containing the above-mentioned concentrations of CIT for 10 weeks. After 10 weeks, male and female animals of respective groups were kept for mating (one male/two females). After getting 10 pregnant females, the males were killed. These 10 pregnant females were allowed to give birth to young ones (F1 generation) naturally which were fed CIT in the above-mentioned doses till the age of 6 weeks and then were killed. Apoptosis was analysed in kidneys, liver and testes by DNA ladder pattern, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end-labelling assay and Bcl-2/Bax ratio. Besides, tissue oxidative stress was also analysed. It was concluded in the present study that CIT induces its toxic effects till F1 generation, and apoptosis and oxidative stress both play a very important role in toxicity. The effect of CIT was observed in a dose-dependent manner. However, in kidneys, both the mechanisms (apoptosis and oxidative stress) play their role in inflicting renal damage, while in liver only reactive oxygen species play a major role. Finally, the CIT toxicity did not lead to apoptosis and oxidative stress in male gonads till F1 generation.

Effect of feeding graded doses of Citrinin on clinical and teratology in female Wistar rats.

Citrinin is the one of the well-known mycotoxins, which is possibly spread all over the world. The graded doses of citrinin (1, 3 and 5 ppm CIT in feed) in female Wistar rats 10 weeks prior to mating, during mating and during organogenesis resulted in resorptions and post implantation losses, decreased fetal body weights and crown-rump lengths in fetuses of all groups. Various developmental anomalies recorded in fetuses of treated rats included gross (wrist drop, curled tail, stretched forelimb, subcutaneous haematoma), skeletal (incomplete ossification of skull bones, incomplete fusion of vertebral bodies, complete and partial agenesis of sternaebrae, metacarpals, metatarsals and phalanges, fused ribs and swing out ribs) and visceral (internal and external hydrocephalus, cerebellar hypoplasia, microphthalmia, roundening of heart, contracted kidneys, dilated renal pelvis and cryptorchid testes). The results suggest that CIT has adverse effects on fetal development which may be due to the longer bioavailability of citrinin in the animals.

Induction of ovarian toxicity in a subchronic oral toxicity study of citrinin in female BALB/c mice.

The present study was performed to elucidate toxicity profile of citrinin (CTN) after repeated oral doses for 90 days, especially on the kidneys and female reproductive organs using female BALB/c mice. We first performed a 70-day repeated oral dose toxicity study of CTN by setting the doses at 1.25 and 7.5 ppm in the drinking water (Experiment 1). As a result, CTN did not produce any toxicity in the kidneys, liver, and female genital organs/tracts, except for a slight increase of relative ovary weight. We, next, performed 90-day repeated oral dose toxicity study of CTN by increasing the dose levels at 15 and 30 ppm in the drinking water. The results suggested that CTN did not produce any toxicity in the kidneys, liver, and female genital organs/tracts, except for increase of both absolute and relative ovary weights accompanying increase of large follicles at ≥ 15 ppm. On the basis of these findings, the lowest-observable-adverse-effect level of CTN was 15 ppm (2.25 mg/kg body weight/day) in the drinking water for female BALB/c mice after 90-day oral treatment.

Immune modulatory effects of the foodborne contaminant citrinin in mice.

The mycotoxin citrinin can cause mycotoxic nephropathy, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. To investigate the immune modulatory effects, CTN was orally administered to female BALB/c mice at the dose of 1, 5, or 10 mg/kg body weight for 14 days, and several immunotoxicity tests were performed. The populations of F4/80+ cells and CD19+ cells were significantly decreased in spleen and MLN. In MLN, CD4+, CD8+, and CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ cell populations were increased. CD8+ cells were increased but CD19+ cells were decreased in intra-epithelial, lamina propria and Peyer's patches lymphocytes. In a cell proliferation assay, along with the increased proliferative capacities of ConA-induced splenocytes and MLN cells, IFN-γ production was increased. The expression of TLR 2 was increased in spleen, but TLR 3 expression in MLN was decreased. The level of serum IgM was reduced. Furthermore, apoptosis was induced in spleen, MLN and Peyer's patches and promoted by the change in the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 activities. Autophagy gene Atg5 and Beclin-1 were up-regulated in spleen. The expressions of IL-1ß, IL-10, and TNF-α were inhibited in murine macrophage cells pre-exposed with TLR ligands. These results indicate that CTN has multiple immune modulatory effects in mice that may alter normal functions of immune system.

A potential role of calcium in apoptosis and aberrant chromatin forms in porcine kidney PK15 cells induced by individual and combined ochratoxin A and citrinin.

The aim of this study was to establish the involvement of calcium signalling in genotoxicity, apoptosis and necrosis evoked by ochratoxin A (OTA) and citrinin (CTN) alone or in combination in porcine kidney PK15 cells. Cell proliferation test (MTT) and trypan blue assays (24 h) demonstrated that CTN (IC(50) = 73.5 ± 1.0, 75.4 ± 1.4 µM, respectively) was less toxic than OTA (IC(50) = 14.0 ± 2.4, 20.5 ± 1.0 µM, respectively). To test their cytotoxic interactions, two doses of single OTA (6 and 10 µM) and CTN (30 and 50 µM) and their combinations were applied. Combined treatment showed additive cytotoxic effects. OTA and CTN induced dose-dependent increase in cytosolic calcium level (assessed with Fura-2 AM). However, combined treatment did not provoke additional increase in calcium signal. The rate of apoptosis and necrosis (DAPI-antifade staining) was significantly higher after 12 h than 24 h, while the frequencies of micronuclei (MNs) and nuclear buds (NBs) were higher after 24 h than 12 h treatment. Combined exposure resulted in apoptotic and necrotic synergism, while genotoxic effects of OTA + CTN were noted as antagonistic or additive. Co-exposure of cells to calcium chelator BAPTA-AM significantly reduced CTN and OTA + CTN-evoked apoptosis. Twenty-four hour after co-exposure to BAPTA-AM and a single OTA and CTN, MNs significantly decreased while NBs dropped significantly after co-treatment with BAPTA-AM and OTA + CTN. In conclusion, disturbance of Ca(2+) homeostasis caused by OTA and CTN plays a significant role in cell genotoxicity and death.

Citrinin and endosulfan induced maternal toxicity in pregnant Wistar rats: pathomorphological study.

Dietary exposures to environmental food pollutants such as mycotoxin(s) or pesticide(s) have gained immense significance due to their adverse effects on production and reproduction in animal and human populations. The present investigation was conducted to evaluate the maternal toxicity of citrinin (CIT) and endosulfan administered per os either alone or in combination in pregnant rats during gestational days 6-20. CIT (group I, 10 mg kg(-1) feed, through diet) and endosulfan (group II, 1 mg kg(-1) body weight, by oral intubation) when administered either alone or in combination (group III) in Wistar rats caused clinical signs of toxicity and pathomorphological changes in all the toxin treated groups, the severity being more pronounced in the combination treatment compared with that observed in the control (group IV). The rate of fetal resorptions was highest (22.22%) in the combination treatment followed by endosulfan (16.48%) and CIT (12.50%) treatment groups compared with the control group (3.86%). The histopathological changes such as engorged vasculature, vacuolar degeneration and karyomegaly in liver; congestion, tubular degeneration and cast formation in kidneys; vascular changes and hemosiderosis in uterus and lymphocytic depletion and apoptosis in the lymphoid organs were recorded in the animals of the toxin treated groups. The lesions were consistent and more severe in the combination treatment group compared with the individual treatment groups, suggesting an additive interaction of CIT and endosulfan in inducing maternal toxicity in Wistar rats.

Ochratoxin A and citrinin nephrotoxicity in New Zealand White rabbits: an ultrastructural assessment.

In the present investigation, ochratoxin A (OTA) (0.75 mg/kg feed) and citrinin (CIT) (15 mg/kg feed) were fed alone and in combination to young growing New Zealand White rabbits for 60 days to evaluate renal ultrastructural alterations. The severity and intensity of renal ultrastructural changes varied with the type of the treatment, and predominant and consistent lesions were recorded in the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) lining cells. The significant changes in mitochondria, the most affected cell organelle in all the treatment groups, included mitochondrial disintegration and distortion, pleomorphism, cluster formation and misshapen appearance such as signet ring, dumbbell, cup and U shapes. Intra-cisternal sequestrations of involuting mitochondria, and thickening of basal layer of PCT epithelial cells with partial detachment, were the characteristic features observed in OTA and combination treatments. CIT treatment revealed crenated nucleus, loss of nucleolus, depletion of cytoplasmic organelles, mitochondrial pleomorphism, nuclear fragmentation, uniform folding of cell membrane and cytoplasmic vacuolations in the PCTs. Focal thickening of the glomerular basement membrane and degeneration of endothelial cells were the prominent alterations in the glomeruli in OTA and combination treatments. Distal convoluted tubules were unaffected in CIT treatment, however, mild to moderate lesions were observed in OTA and combination treated rabbits. It may be concluded that on simultaneous exposure, CIT potentiated the toxic effects of OTA on renal ultrastructure.

Supressão da resposta imunitária humoral causada pela citrinina / Humoral immunosupression caused by citrinin

Avaliou-se o efeito imunotóxico causado por exposição a baixas doses de citrinina (2,5mg kg-1) em camundongos albinos expostos à micotoxina antes (n=15), durante (n=15) e após (n=15) a imunização com antígeno inerte, representado por eritrócitos de carneiro - sheep red blood cells (SRBC). Quinze camundongos foram usados como controle (não intoxicados). Sete dias após o tratamento, os animais foram sangrados e os títulos de anticorpos anti-SRBC e de complemento foram determinados. A citrinina diminuiu os títulos de anticorpos primários em todos os grupos intoxicados. A intoxicação antes e após a imunização provocou diminuição em 87,5 por cento nos títulos médios de anticorpos específicos. A exposição simultânea à imunização gerou diminuição de 75 por cento. Houve acentuada redução nos níveis de complemento circulante, detectada nos animais previamente intoxicados (93,8 por cento), ou intoxicados juntamente com a imunização (87,5 por cento).

Citrinin produces acute adverse changes in renal function and ultrastructure in pentobarbital-anesthetized dogs without concomitant reductions in [potassium]plasma.

Citrinin's nephrotoxicity was examined in pentobarbital-anesthetized dogs under conditions that minimized or avoided significant changes in a number of its actions that could indirectly and adversely affect renal function and ultrastructure, such as, (i) major acute reductions in blood pressure and renal blood flow and, (ii) emesis and diarrhea that could lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances, especially hypokalemia. Slow intravenous injection of 20 mumol citrinin/kg to pentobarbital-anesthetized dogs did not induce any alterations in renal tissue ultrastructure or in any of the 23 whole blood, plasma or renal function parameters that were monitored over a 6-h post-citrinin period. On the other hand, 80 mumol citrinin/kg produced significant increases in the hematocrit and in the renal excretion rates of protein and glucose; modest reductions were noted in CIN, RBF and excretion rate of inorganic phosphorus. In addition, 80 mumol citrinin/kg induced ultrastructural lesions in the cells of the S2 proximal tubular segment, the thick ascending limb, the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting ducts. The glomeruli, S1 and S3 cells of the proximal tubule and the thin descending and ascending limbs of Henle's loop were unaffected by both citrinin doses. The location and nature of the adverse ultrastructural lesions were most likely the result of the direct actions of citrinin (or a citrinin metabolite) since the effects of citrinin that could lead to indirect adverse renal effects were totally avoided or greatly minimized.

Nonlinear statistical models for the joint action of toxins.

A general approach using nonlinear regression models is presented for evaluating additivity, synergism, and antagonism of mixtures of toxins for proportions and ratio-scale response measures. This approach provides several advantages over the analysis methods typically used, which involve linear regression with logits or probits. A single model fit is performed, rather than a multistep procedure. Nonadditive alternative models can be easily constructed and tested against the appropriate additive models. The approach avoids the use of data "adjustments" for nonzero background response rates. The analyses are performed in the natural response metric, making interpretation straightforward. Also, the nonlinear regression model can be reparameterized to provide more meaningful primary parameters.

Avian diuretic response to renal portal infusions of the mycotoxin citrinin.

Citrinin is a nephrotoxic mycotoxin produced by common molds. Previous research has shown that citrinin causes increased urine flow, increased free water clearance, and increased sodium, potassium, and inorganic phosphate excretion. The present study was conducted to evaluate the dose-response effects of citrinin and to further evaluate previously reported phosphaturic effects of citrinin. Ureteral urine was collected from anesthetized domestic fowl during a control period (30 min) and during unilateral renal portal infusion (90 min) of citrinin carrier vehicle, 200 ppm citrinin, or 400 ppm citrinin. Comparisons of the portal infused vs. uninfused kidneys were used to evaluate the direct effects of citrinin. Citrinin caused acute (unilateral) dose-related increases in urine flow, free water clearance, and fractional sodium excretion and dose-related decreases in urine osmolality. Citrinin had no direct effect on glomerular filtration rates, fractional potassium excretion, or fractional inorganic phosphate excretion. An additional group of birds received systemic intravenous infusions of parathyroid hormone (PTH) beginning 40 min after the start of unilateral renal portal infusion of citrinin. The citrinin and PTH infusion were continued for 60 min. Fractional inorganic phosphate excretion increased bilaterally during the citrinin-PTH infusion period but citrinin had no direct phosphaturic effect. Previously reported phosphaturic effects of citrinin were not confirmed in the present study.

Kidney function of single comb white Leghorn pullets following acute renal portal infusion of the mycotoxin citrinin.

Poultry consuming diets contaminated with citrinin excrete copious quantities of urine and exhibit increased water consumption. The present study was conducted to determine if citrinin acts directly on the kidneys and, if so, to provide a detailed physiological evaluation of the nephrotoxic effects of citrinin. Single Comb White Leghorn pullets were anesthetized and prepared for renal function studies. Ureteral urine was collected during a pre-infusion period (30 min), during unilateral renal portal infusion of 200 ppm citrinin (30 min), and during a recovery period following citrinin infusion (90 min). Pilot studies had shown that 200 ppm citrinin is the lowest dose capable of causing consistent unilateral responses when infused at a rate of .2 ml/kg body weight (BW) X min. The responses of the portal-infused kidneys were compared with the responses of the contralateral (uninfused) kidneys to determine the direct effects of citrinin. Citrinin had no acute direct (unilateral) effect on glomerular filtration rate, renal plasma flow rate, urine pH, or fractional calcium or magnesium excretion. Citrinin caused rapid unilateral increases in urine flow rates, free water clearance, and in fractional sodium, potassium, and inorganic phosphate excretion. Increased solute excretion did not compensate for increased free water clearance, as reflected by a significant decrease in urine osmolality. Recovery from the effects of citrinin occurred within 30 min after cessation of unilateral renal portal infusion. No histopathological damage was seen when citrinin was infused at 200 and 800 ppm, although dose-related increases in urine flow and decreases in urine osmolality were observed.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)