Geographically Sourcing Cocaine's Origin - Delineation of the Nineteen Major Coca Growing Regions in South America.

Previously, geo-sourcing to five major coca growing regions within South America was accomplished. However, the expansion of coca cultivation throughout South America made sub-regional origin determinations increasingly difficult. The former methodology was recently enhanced with additional stable isotope analyses ((2)H and (18)O) to fully characterize cocaine due to the varying environmental conditions in which the coca was grown. An improved data analysis method was implemented with the combination of machine learning and multivariate statistical analysis methods to provide further partitioning between growing regions. Here, we show how the combination of trace cocaine alkaloids, stable isotopes, and multivariate statistical analyses can be used to classify illicit cocaine as originating from one of 19 growing regions within South America. The data obtained through this approach can be used to describe current coca cultivation and production trends, highlight trafficking routes, as well as identify new coca growing regions.

Inter- and intra-specific variation among five Erythroxylum taxa assessed by AFLP.

BACKGROUND: and Aims The four cultivated Erythroxylum taxa (E. coca var. coca, E. novogranatense var. novogranatense, E. coca var. ipadu and E. novogranatense var. truxillense) are indigenous to the Andean region of South America and have been cultivated for folk-medicine and, within the last century, for illicit cocaine production. The objective of this research was to assess the structure of genetic diversity within and among the four cultivated alkaloid-bearing taxa of Erythroxylum in the living collection at Beltsville Agricultural Research Center. METHODS: Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) fingerprinting was performed in 86 Erythroxylum accessions using a capillary genotyping system. Cluster analysis, multidimensional scaling (MDS) and analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) were used to assess the pattern and level of genetic variation among and within the taxa. KEY RESULTS: A clear distinction was revealed between E. coca and E. novogranatense. At the intra-specific level, significant differentiation was observed between E. c. var. coca and E. c. var. ipadu, but the differentiation between E. n. var. novogranatense and E. n. var. truxillense was negligible. Erythroxylum c. var. ipadu had a significantly lower amount of diversity than the E. c. var. coca and is genetically different from the E. c. var. ipadu currently under cultivation in Colombia, South America. CONCLUSIONS: There is a heterogeneous genetic structure among the cultivated Erythroxylum taxa where E. coca and E. novogranatense are two independent species. Erythroxylum coca var. coca is most likely the ancestral taxon of E. c. var. ipadu and a founder effect may have occurred as E. c. var. ipadu moved from the eastern Andes in Peru and Bolivia into the lowland Amazonian basin. There is an indication of artificial hybridization in coca grown in Colombia.

¿Es posible diferenciar analíticamente un consumidor de coca de uno de cocaína? / Is it possible to differentiate analitically a coca user from a coccaine user?

El objetivo del estudio fue ver si a través del análisis de orina se podría determinar el tipo de consumo de coca o cocaína que realizaban los consumidores. El estudio se llevó a cabo en la ciudad de La Paz (Bolivia). Para ello se reclutaron consumidores voluntarios y se dividieron en tres grupos: los consumidores de coca masticada (acullicadores), los consumidores de cocaína y los consumidores de coca en forma de mates. A todos ellos se les tomó muestras de orina con el fin de detectar la cantidad de benzoilecgonina y verificar si se podían establecer diferencias entre los individuos o los grupos. Cuando las concentraciones de benzoilecgonina en orina fluctuaban entre 220 a 450 ng/ml correspondían a cualquiera de los tres grupos consumidores sin poder descartar, ni diferenciar, ninguna de estas posibilidades. Cuando las concentraciones de benzoilecgonina en orina eran más altas y fluctuaban entre 451 a 560 ng/ml, correspondían a consumidores de hoja de coca que la masticaban (“acullicaban”) o a los consumidores de cocaína, sin poder descartar, ni diferenciar, ninguna de las dos posibilidades. La eliminación de benzoilecgonina por la orina, depende de la cantidad de coca/cocaína ingerida, de la forma de consumo de la coca, del metabolismo de la persona y de la cantidad de líquidos ingeridos/eliminados; pero no fue posible mediante esta prueba, saber a qué grupo pertenecía un individuo, pero sí se pudieron establecer diferencias grupales significativas entre las distintas formas de consumo

The objective of the study was to ascertain if urine analysis could be used to determine whether substance users were taking coca or cocaine. The study was carried out in the city of La Paz in Bolivia. Volunteer users were recruited and divided into three groups: those who chewed coca leaves, cocaine users and coca tea drinkers. Urine samples were taken from all of them, with the objective of detecting the amount of benzoylecgonine, and ascertaining if differences could be established between individuals or groups. When benzoylecgonine concentrations in urine fluctuated between 220 and 450 ng/ml, they corresponded to users in any of the three groups, it being impossible to discard or differentiate any one of them. When benzoylecgonine concentrations in urine were higher, and fluctuated between 451 and 560 ng/ml, they corresponded to those who chewed coca leaves or to cocaine users, without it being possible to discard or differentiate either of these two groups. The elimination of benzoylecgonine in the urine depends on the quantity of coca/cocaine ingested, the cocaine consumption method, personal metabolism and the quantity of liquid ingested/ eliminated but, on the basis of this study, it was not possible to ascertain to which group an individual belonged, although it was possible to establish significant group differences in accordance with the specific methods of use

Identification of Erythroxylum taxa by AFLP DNA analysis.

Erythroxylum coca, indigenous to the Andean region of South America, is grown historically as a source of homeopathic medicine. However, in the last century, cultivation of E. coca and several closely-related species for the production of illicit cocaine has become a major global problem. Two subspecies, E. coca var. coca and E. coca var. ipadu, are almost indistinguishable phenotypically; a related cocaine-bearing species also has two subspecies (E. novogranatense var. novogranatense and E. novogranatense var. truxillense) that are phenotypically similar, but morphologically distinguishable. The purpose of this research was to discover unique AFLP DNA patterns ("genetic fingerprinting") that characterize the four taxa and then, if successful, to evaluate this approach for positive identification of the various species of coca. Of seven different AFLP primer pairs tested, a combination of five proved optimal in differentiating the four taxa as well as a non-cocaine-bearing species, E. aerolatum. This method of DNA fragment separation was selective, and faster, for coca identification, compared with analyses based on flavonoid chemotaxonomy. Using the 5-primer AFLP approach, 132 known and unknown coca leaf accessions were evaluated. Of these, 38 were collected in 1997-2001 from illicit coca fields in Colombia, and all were genetically differentiated from coca originating in Peru and Bolivia. Based on the DNA profiling, we believe that the Colombian coca now represents a hybridization of E. coca var. ipadu. Geographical profiling within Colombia also seems feasible as new coca production areas are developed or new types of coca are introduced within traditional growing areas.

Investigacion cientifica sobre las propiedades y usos legales de la hoja de coca: Analisis historico y contemporaneo

La legalidad del consumo de la hoja de coca en si, del ya mundialmente discutido mate de coca y sus propiedades terapeuticas se convirtio de una constumbre tradicional permitida por la misma ley 1008 en una politica nacional, es asi que ante los Estados Unidos y las mismas Naciones Unidas se presento la diplomacia de la coca la que fue defendida con entusiasmo

Amazonian coca.

A general overview of various aspects of Amazonian coca (Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu) is presented. This plant is considered a distinct variety of coca which has been developed as a cultivated plant in the upper Amazon basin. It differs from typical Andean coca in morphological, physiological and chemical features as well as in the method of preparation and use by Amazonian tribes. The main topics here discussed are the history, distribution, botany, chemistry, origin, methods of preparation and use, and the effects of Amazonian coca.