High-quality reference genome sequences of two coconut cultivars provide insights into evolution of monocot chromosomes and differentiation of fiber content and plant height.

BACKGROUND: Coconut is an important tropical oil and fruit crop whose evolutionary position renders it a fantastic species for the investigation of the evolution of monocot chromosomes and the subsequent differentiation of ancient plants. RESULTS: Here, we report the assembly and annotation of reference-grade genomes of Cn. tall and Cn. dwarf, whose genome sizes are 2.40 Gb and 2.39 Gb, respectively. The comparative analysis reveals that the two coconut subspecies diverge about 2-8 Mya while the conserved Arecaceae-specific whole-genome duplication (ω WGD) occurs approximately 47-53 Mya. It additionally allows us to reconstruct the ancestral karyotypes of the ten ancient monocot chromosomes and the evolutionary trajectories of the 16 modern coconut chromosomes. Fiber synthesis genes in Cn. tall, related to lignin and cellulose synthesis, are found at a higher copy number and expression level than dwarf coconuts. Integrated multi-omics analysis reveals that the difference in coconut plant height is the result of altered gibberellin metabolism, with both the GA20ox copy number and a single-nucleotide change in the promoter together leading to the difference in plant height between Cn. tall and Cn. dwarf. CONCLUSION: We provide high-quality coconut genomes and reveal the genetic basis of trait differences between two coconuts through multi-omics analysis. We also reveal that the selection of plant height has been targeted for the same gene for millions of years, not only in natural selection of ancient plant as illustrated in coconut, but also for artificial selection in cultivated crops such as rice and maize.

Alternative splicing of flowering time gene FT is associated with halving of time to flowering in coconut.

Coconut palm has two distinct types-"tall" and "dwarf"-which differ morphologically. Tall coconut varieties need 8-10 years to start flowering, while dwarf coconut varieties only require 3-5 years. We compared seedling and reproductive stage transcriptomes for both coconut types to determine potential molecular mechanisms underlying control of flowering time in coconut. Several key genes in the photoperiod pathway were differentially expressed between seedling and reproductive leaf samples in both tall and dwarf coconut. These genes included suppressor of overexpression of constans (SOC1), flowering locus T (FT), and Apetala 1 (AP1). Alternative splicing analysis of genes in the photoperiod pathway further revealed that the FT gene produces different transcripts in tall compared to dwarf coconut. The shorter alternative splice variant of FT [which included a 6 bp deletion, alternative 3' splicing sites (A3SS)] was found to be exclusively present in dwarf coconut varieties but absent in most tall coconut varieties. Our results provide a valuable information resource as well as suggesting a probable mechanism for differentiation of flowering time onset in coconut, providing a target for future breeding work in accelerating time to flowering in this crop species.

Facile coconut inflorescence sap mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and its diverse antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties.

Green synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) involves the use of diverse extracts of biological origin as substrates to synthesize NPs and can overcome the hazards associated with chemical methods. Coconut inflorescence sap, which is unfermented phloem sap obtained by tapping of coconut inflorescence, is a rich source of sugars and secondary metabolites. In this study, coconut inflorescence sap was used to synthesize silver NPs (AgNPs). We have initially undertaken metabolomic profiling of coconut inflorescence sap from West Coast Tall cultivar to delineate its individual components. It was found to comprise of 64% secondary metabolites, 9% sugars, 12% lipids/fats and 9% peptides in positive mode, whereas in the negative mode, it was 33, 20, 9 and 11%, respectively. The concentration of silver nitrate, inflorescence sap and incubation temperature for the synthesis of AgNPs were optimized. Incubating the reaction mixture at 40 °C was found to enhance AgNP synthesis. The AgNPs synthesized were characterized using UV-visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometry, X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The particles were crystalline in nature and the bulk of the particles were spherical with smooth (thin) shell and poly-dispersed with a diameter ranging from 10 nm to 30 nm. Antimicrobial property of AgNPs was tested in tissue culture of arecanut (Areca catechu L.) where bacterial contamination (Bacillus pumilus) was a frequent occurrence. A significant reduction in the contamination was observed when plantlets were treated with aqueous solutions of AgNPs. Notably, treatment with AgNPs did not affect the growth and development of the arecanut plantlets. Antimicrobial properties of AgNPs synthesized from inflorescence sap were also evaluated in human pathogenic bacteria viz., Escherichia coli ATCC 25922; Salmonella Typhimurium ATCC 14028 and Vibrio parahaemolyticus AQ4037. The antibacterial action was confirmed by determining the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and protein leakage studies. Cytotoxicity of AgNPs was quantified in HeLa cells. The viability (%) of HeLa cells declined significantly at 10 mg L-1 concentration of AgNP and complete mortality was observed at a concentration of 60 mg L-1. The study concludes that unfermented inflorescence sap, with above neutral pH, serves as an excellent reducing agent to synthesize AgNPs from Ag+.

Hierarchical Structure of the Cocos nucifera (Coconut) Endocarp: Functional Morphology and its Influence on Fracture Toughness.

In recent years, the biomimetic potential of lignified or partially lignified fruit pericarps has moved into focus. For the transfer of functional principles into biomimetic applications, a profound understanding of the structural composition of the role models is important. The aim of this study was to qualitatively analyze and visualize the functional morphology of the coconut endocarp on several hierarchical levels, and to use these findings for a more precise evaluation of the toughening mechanisms in the endocarp. Eight hierarchical levels of the ripe coconut fruit were identified using different imaging techniques, including light and scanning electron microscopy as well as micro-computer-tomography. These range from the organ level of the fruit (H0) to the molecular composition (H7) of the endocarp components. A special focus was laid on the hierarchical levels of the endocarp (H3-H6). This investigation confirmed that all hierarchical levels influence the crack development in different ways and thus contribute to the pronounced fracture toughness of the coconut endocarp. By providing relevant morphological parameters at each hierarchical level with the associated toughening mechanisms, this lays the basis for transferring those properties into biomimetic technical applications.

Examination of a New Desorption Method for Solid Adsorption Method of Working Environment Measurement －Attempt to Improve Desorption Efficiency of Organic Solvents from a Coconut-Shell-Activated Carbon Using Surfactant Solutions－.

For a new desorption method development for working environment measurement, desorption efficiency of organic solvent vapors from an activated carbon was examined using desorption solutions that consisted of anionic and nonionic surfactants. Ten µl of an aqueous solution of isopropyl alcohol or methyl ethyl ketone diluted with distilled water was spiked into a 10 ml vial with a coconut-shell-activated carbon (100 mg). The vial was left for 24 h, and 5 ml a desorption solution was added. Afterwards, the vial was put into an incubator at 60°C and left for 24 h, then the desorption efficiency was determined by analyzing the headspace gas in the vial with a gas chromatograph equipped with flame ionization detector. By adding one or four kinds of nonionic surfactants to the aqueous solution containing two kinds of anionic surfactants, the effect adding nonionic surfactant to the desorption efficiency was investigated, but improvement of desorption efficiency was not observed. On the other hand, desorption efficiency varied depending on the production lot of the coconut-shell-activated carbon tube used as the adsorbent.

Functional gradients in the pericarp of the green coconut inspire asymmetric fibre-composites with improved impact strength, and preserved flexural and tensile properties.

Here we investigate the mechanical properties and structural design of the pericarp of the green coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). The pericarp showed excellent impact characteristics, and mechanical tests of its individual components revealed gradients in stiffness, strength and elongation at break from the outer to the inner layer of the pericarp. In order to understand more about the potential effect of such gradients on 'bulk' material properties, we designed simple, graded, cellulose fibre-reinforced polylactide (PLA) composites by stacking layers reinforced with fibres of different mechanical properties. Tensile properties of the graded composites were largely determined by the 'weakest' fibre, irrespective of the fibre distribution. However, a graded design led to pronounced asymmetric bending and impact properties. Bio-inspired, asymmetrically graded composites showed a flexural strength and modulus comparable to that of the strongest reference samples, but the elongation at maximum load was dependent on the specimen orientation. The impact strength of the graded composites showed a similar orientation-dependence, and peak values exceeded the impact strength of a non-graded reference composite containing identical fibre fractions by up to a factor of three. In combination, our results show that an asymmetric, systematic variation of fibre properties can successfully combine desirable properties of different fibre types, suggesting new routes for the development of high-performance composites, and improving our understanding of the structure-function relationship of the coconut pericarp.

Green coconut mesocarp pretreated by an alkaline process as raw material for bioethanol production.

Cocos nucifera L., coconut, is a palm of high importance in the food industry, but a considerable part of the biomass is inedible. In this study, the pretreatment and saccharification parameters NaOH solution, pretreatment duration and enzyme load were evaluated for the production of hydrolysates from green coconut mesocarp using 18% (w/v) total solids (TS). Hydrolysates were not detoxified in order to preserve sugars solubilized during the pretreatment. Reduction of enzyme load from 15 to 7.5 filter paper cellulase unit (FPU)/g of biomass has little effect on the final ethanol titer. With optimized pretreatment and saccharification, hydrolysates with more than 7% (w/v) sugars were produced in 48h. Fermentation of the hydrolysate using industrial Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains produced 3.73% (v/v) ethanol. Our results showed a simple pretreatment condition with a high-solid load of biomass followed by saccharification and fermentation of undetoxified coconut mesocarp hydrolysates to produce ethanol with high titer.

Application of activated carbons from coal and coconut shell for removing free residual chlorine.

This study investigated the removal of free residual chlorine by activated carbon (AC). ACs were prepared from coal (AC1) and coconut shell (AC2). The specific surface area of AC1 was larger than that of AC2. The removal of free residual chlorine increased with elapsed time and amount of adsorbent. The removal mechanism of free residual chlorine was the dechlorination reaction between hypochlorous acid or hypochlorite ion and AC. Moreover, AC1 was useful in the removal of free residual chlorine in tap water. The optimum condition for the removal of free residual chlorine using a column is space velocity 306 1/h; liner velocity 6.1 m/h.

Escala diagramática de dano de Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae) em coqueiro / Diagrammatic scale of Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae) damage in coconut

Aceria guerreronis Keifer é importante praga do coqueiro no mundo. Dada a falta de métodos padronizados para a quantificação dos danos causados por esse eriofiídeo, uma escala diagramática com níveis de 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 48 e 70% de danos foi elaborada e testada para precisão e reprodutibilidade das estimativas. Para validar a escala, frutos com diferentes níveis de dano foram previamente avaliados com o programa Assess e submetidos à avaliação por 10 avaliadores inexperientes com e sem a escala (1ª avaliação) e sete dias após (2ª avaliação) com os mesmos avaliadores, empregandose as fotos digitalizadas dos mesmos frutos com seqüência diferente. A acurácia e a precisão de cada avaliador foram determinadas por regressão linear simples entre o dano observado e estimado. Sem a utilização da escala, sete de 10 avaliadores superestimaram o nível de dano, sendo pouco precisos. No entanto, avaliadores utilizando a escala obtiveram melhores níveis de acurácia e precisão. Osavaliadores apresentaram níveis mais elevados de reprodutibilidade das estimativas com a utilização da escala comparada às avaliações sem a escala. A escala foi utilizada para determinar a relação entre a infestação e o dano causado por A. guerreronis. A relação entre infestação e níveis de dano apresentou elevada precisão (R2 = 99,87%, P < 0,0001) pela equação lny = 4,948 - 0,121 x + 1,789 lnx. Portanto,os resultados comprovam que é possível estimar a população de A. guerreronis nos frutos de coco infestados com a utilização da escala diagramática.

Aceria guerreronis Keifer is an important pest of coconut worldwide. Due to the lack of standardized methods to quantify damage of this eryophyid, a diagrammatic scale with indices of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 48 and 70% of damage caused by A. guerreronis was elaborated and tested to accuracy, precision and reproduction of the estimations. To validate the scale, fruits with different levels of damage were previously measured with the program Assess and submitted to 10 inexperienced evaluators with or without the scale (1ª evaluation) and seven days after (2ª evaluation) with the same evaluators, using digitized pictures of the same fruits in a different sequence. The accuracy and precision of each evaluator was determined through linear regression between observed and estimated damage. Without using the scale, evaluators were less precise as seven out of 10 overestimated the damage, while evaluators provided with the scale were much more accurate. Also, evaluations with the aid of the scale were much more reproducible than without the scale. The scale was used to determine the relationship between infestation and damage levels caused by A. guerrerronis. The relationshipbetween infestation and damage fi tted by the equation lny = 4.948 - 0.121x + 1.789 lnx (R2 = 99.87%, P < 0.0001). Therefore, these fi ndings show that it is possible to estimate A. guerreronis population density on infested coconut fruits by using the diagrammatic scale.

[Diagrammatic scale of Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae) damage in coconut]. / Escala diagramática de dano de Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae) em coqueiro.

Aceria guerreronis Keifer is an important pest of coconut worldwide. Due to the lack of standardized methods to quantify damage of this eryophyid, a diagrammatic scale with indices of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 48 and 70% of damage caused by A. guerreronis was elaborated and tested to accuracy, precision and reproduction of the estimations. To validate the scale, fruits with different levels of damage were previously measured with the program Assess(R) and submitted to 10 inexperienced evaluators with or without the scale (1 feminine evaluation) and seven days after (2 feminine evaluation) with the same evaluators, using digitized pictures of the same fruits in a different sequence. The accuracy and precision of each evaluator was determined through linear regression between observed and estimated damage. Without using the scale, evaluators were less precise as seven out of 10 overestimated the damage, while evaluators provided with the scale were much more accurate. Also, evaluations with the aid of the scale were much more reproducible than without the scale. The scale was used to determine the relationship between infestation and damage levels caused by A. guerrerronis. The relationship between infestation and damage fitted by the equation lny = 4.948 - 0.121x + 1.789 lnx (R(2) = 99.87%, P < 0.0001). Therefore, these findings show that it is possible to estimate A. guerreronis population density on infested coconut fruits by using the diagrammatic scale.

Plant structural changes due to herbivory: do changes in Aceria-infested coconut fruits allow predatory mites to move under the perianth?

Being minute in size, eriophyoid mites can reach places that are small enough to be inaccessible to their predators. The coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis, is a typical example; it finds partial refuge under the perianth of the coconut fruit. However, some predators can move under the perianth of the coconut fruits and attack the coconut mite. In Sri Lanka, the phytoseiid mite Neoseiulus baraki, is the most common predatory mite found in association with the coconut mite. The cross-diameter of this predatory mite is c. 3 times larger than that of the coconut mite. Nevertheless, taking this predator's flat body and elongated idiosoma into account, it is--relative to many other phytoseiid mites--better able to reach the narrow space under the perianth of infested coconut fruits. On uninfested coconut fruits, however, they are hardly ever observed under the perianth. Prompted by earlier work on the accessibility of tulip bulbs to another eriophyoid mite and its predators, we hypothesized that the structure of the coconut fruit perianth is changed in response to damage by eriophyoid mites and as a result predatory mites are better able to enter under the perianth of infested coconut fruits. This was tested in an experiment where we measured the gap between the rim of the perianth and the coconut fruit surface in three cultivars ('Sri Lanka Tall', 'Sri Lanka Dwarf Green' and 'Sri Lanka Dwarf Green x Sri Lanka Tall' hybrid) that are cultivated extensively in Sri Lanka. It was found that the perianth-fruit gap in uninfested coconut fruits was significantly different between cultivars: the cultivar 'Sri Lanka Dwarf Green' with its smaller and more elongated coconut fruits had a larger perianth-fruit gap. In the uninfested coconut fruits this gap was large enough for the coconut mite to creep under the perianth, yet too small for its predator N. baraki. However, when the coconut fruits were infested by coconut mites, the perianth-rim-fruit gap was not different among cultivars and had increased to such an extent that the space under the perianth became accessible to the predatory mites.

QTL analysis of fruit components in the progeny of a Rennell Island Tall coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) individual.

We investigated the genetic factors controlling fruit components in coconut by performing QTL analyses for fruit component weights and ratios in a segregating progeny of a Rennell Island Tall genotype. The underlying linkage map of this population was already established in a previous study, as well as QTL analyses for fruit production, which were used to complement our results. The addition of 53 new markers (mainly SSRs) led to minor amendments in the map. A total of 52 putative QTLs were identified for the 11 traits under study. Thirty-four of them were grouped in six small clusters, which probably correspond to single pleiotropic genes. Some additional QTLs located apart from these clusters also had relatively large effects on the individual traits. The QTLs for fruit component weight, endosperm humidity and fruit production were found at different locations in the genome, suggesting that efficient marker-assisted selection for yield can be achieved by selecting QTLs for the individual components. The detected QTLs descend from a genotype belonging to the "Pacific" coconut group. Based on the known molecular and phenotypic differences between "Pacific" and "Indo-Atlantic" coconuts, we suggest that a large fraction of coconut genetic diversity is still to be investigated by studying populations derived from crosses between these groups.

[Identification of Chinese drug sea coconut].

Sea Coconut is the seed of Lodoicea maldivica Persoon, palmae. It is one species in the Seychelles Islands, Africa. The drug is yellow-white in colour, slice-shaped, 12 cm in length and 4 cm in breadth. Seed-coat cell circular in shape. Under seed-coat, the cells are elliptic, and stone cells are rectangle with thick wall and large pit. Endosperm cell elongate with thick wall and large pits, the end of pits enlarge as a pearl.

Coconut: a review of its uses as they relate to the allergic individual.

In the constant search for nutritious foods to substitute in the diet of the allergic patient, as well as for suitable menstrua for cosmetics and medications, coconut is suggested as a hypoallergenic and underutilized source. Impressions of its hypoallergenicity are encouraged by a review of the medical literature and by observations and experimental data of the authors.