"Uma pílula difícil de engolir?" Representações sociais do anticoncepcional masculino no Facebook / "A hard pill to swallow?" Social representations of the male contraceptive pill on Facebook

Resumo A pílula anticoncepcional feminina é um dos principais métodos contraceptivos utilizados na atualidade; já a pílula anticoncepcional masculina, apesar de ter sido pensada há mais de 50 anos, ainda não é comercializada. O objetivo do presente trabalho é compreender aspectos psicossociais da dinâmica da sociedade em relação a novas formas contraceptivas e examinar se novas formas contraceptivas direcionadas ao corpo do homem seriam acatadas. Em março de 2018, a revista Superinteressante postou em sua página do Facebook uma reportagem sobre uma pílula anticoncepcional masculina que foi bem-sucedida em sua primeira fase de teste. A postagem gerou grande comoção e surgiram muitos comentários expressando diferentes opiniões sobre o assunto. Foram submetidos à análise de conteúdo temático-categorial 294 comentários feitos nessa postagem. Os resultados revelam que esse método contraceptivo masculino aparece inscrito em um sistema representacional que salienta discussões sobre: efeitos colaterais da medicalização, a liberdade feminina, a ampliação da responsabilidade masculina na contracepção/cuidado com os filhos, a desconfiança em relação à postura feminina e outros aspectos que remetem a possíveis avanços científicos e sociais. Os dados analisados não podem ser generalizados, mas apontam para a aceitação de novas formas contraceptivas direcionadas ao corpo masculino.

ABSTRACT The female contraceptive pill is one of the main contraceptive methods used today, while the male contraceptive pill, despite being thought of more than 50 years ago, is not yet commercialized. This work aims to understand psychosocial aspects of the dynamics of society in relation to new forms of contraception and to examine whether new forms of contraception directed to the male body would be accepted. In March 2018, the magazine Superinteressante posted on Facebook a report about a male contraceptive pill that was successful in its first test phase ; the post generated great commotion and many comments emerged expressing different opinions on the subject. 294 comments made on this post were submitted to thematic-categorical content analysis. The results indicate that this male contraceptive method appears inscribed in a representational system that highlights discussions about: side effects of medicalization, female freedom, the expansion of male responsibility in contraception/child care, distrust of the female posture and other aspects that refer to possible scientific and social advances. The analyzed data cannot be generalized, but point to the acceptance of new forms of contraception aimed at the male body.

A vida social das pílulas anticoncepcionais no Brasil (1960-1970): uma história do cotidiano / The social life of birth control pills in Brazil (1960-1970): a history of everyday life

As pílulas anticoncepcionais podem ser consideradas um dos medicamentos mais importantes desde seu surgimento, em 1960. Sua difusão trouxe inúmeras transformações no campo da saúde feminina, nas normas e padrões reprodutivos/sexuais e nos estilos de vida de seus usuários. Estudar os diversos aspectos que atravessam a vida social ou a biografia dos medicamentos permite descortinar a história por trás do sucesso desse método contraceptivo que chega até os dias atuais. Partindo dos marcos teórico-metodológicos dos estudos sociais da ciência e tecnologia e tendo como objeto a história social das pílulas anticoncepcionais nas décadas de 1960 e 1970, o objetivo desse estudo foi investigar a trama de interações suscitadas por esses medicamentos, nas suas primeiras décadas de circulação, e descortinar a parte, ainda pouco explorada, da biografia local dos contraceptivos hormonais no Brasil. Para isso, mapeamos algumas fontes orais. No universo de atores selecionamos: 3 propagandistas, 13 médicos, 5 profissionais do mundo da farmácia e 15 mulheres. A análise narrativa do material compilado nos permitiu reconstituir uma parte da trajetória desse objeto sócio técnico. No decorrer do trabalho conseguimos capturar os mecanismos, as associações, os significados e os efeitos desses contraceptivos na sociedade e na vida privada de seus produtores e consumidores. Também foi possível compreender como a formação dessa rede de associações composta de diferentes atores e diferentes esferas de circulação se mostrou fundamental para formação do pilar de sustentação das pílulas anticoncepcionais. Discutimos a importância de cada um desses atores que acompanharam o leito do rio percorrido pelas pílulas anticoncepcionais e como as oportunidades e as soluções projetadas e agenciadas pelas pílulas anticoncepcionais e o senso-comum de traduzi-las como signo de modernidade foram transformando todos em usuários e permitindo sua consolidação entre nós até os dias atuais.

Contraceptive pills can be considered one of the most important drugs since their emergence in 1960. Their diffusion has brought about numerous changes in women's health, reproductive/sexual norms and standards, and the lifestyles of their users. Studying the various aspects that go through social life or the biography of medicines allows us to unveil the story behind the success of this contraceptive method that reaches to the present day. Starting from the theoretical-methodological frameworks of social studies of science and technology and having as its object the social history of birth control pills in the 1960s and 1970s, the aim of this study was to investigate the web of interactions raised by these drugs in their early decades. circulation, and uncover the still unexplored part of the local biography of hormonal contraceptives in Brazil. For this, we mapped some oral sources. In the universe of actors we selected: 3 propagandists, 13 doctors, 5 professionals from the pharmacy world and 15 women. Narrative analysis of the compiled material allowed us to reconstruct part of the trajectory of this socio-technical object. Throughout the work we managed to capture the mechanisms, associations, meanings and effects of these contraceptives on society and the private lives of their producers and consumers. It was also possible to understand how the formation of this network of associations made up of different actors and different spheres of circulation proved to be fundamental for the formation of the pillar support pill. We discussed the importance of each of these actors who followed the riverbed covered by birth control pills and how the opportunities and solutions designed and brokered by birth control pills and the common sense of translating them as a sign of modernity were turning everyone into users and allowing its consolidation between us until the present day.

Historia de la anticoncepción e historia oral, una revisión bibliográfica / Oral history of contraception: A review

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En sus propias palabras: Relatos de vida sexual y (no) reproductiva de mujeres jóvenes mexicanas durante las décadas de 1960 y 1970 / In their own words: Stories of the sexual and (non-) reproductive life of young Mexican women between the 1960s and 1970s

Este artículo indaga en las experiencias de un grupo de mujeres mexicanas, nacidas entre 1941 y 1955, que vivieron parte de su pubertad, adolescencia y juventud entre 1960 y 1970. Se analiza el conocimiento y uso de métodos anticonceptivos, las dinámicas de sus primeras relaciones erótico-afectivas, las consideraciones sociales y personales sobre la virginidad femenina, y la influencia de las religiones y del feminismo en estos temas. Sus testimonios se ponen en relación con otros estudios de la época -algunos también basados en testimonios de mujeres-, y materiales de la industria cultural, como libros, revistas y películas mexicanas, muchos de las cuales fueron nombrados por las mismas entrevistadas. Sus relatos de vida, obtenidos a partir de entrevistas en profundidad, permiten conocer las negociaciones que estas mujeres establecieron con ciertos sentidos, creencias, modelos y mandatos sociales

This article studies the experiences of a group of Mexican women, born between 1941 and 1955, who lived part of their puberty, adolescence, and youth between 1960 and 1970. It analyzes their opinions and experiences related to contraceptive methods, the dynamics of their first sexual intercourse, social and personal considerations about female virginity, and the influence of religions and feminism on these issues. Their testimonies are contextualized by the available literature on this period, much of which is also based on women's testimony. The women's experiences are also discussed in relation to cultural industry materials such as Mexican books, magazines, and films, many of which were referred to by the interviewees. Their life stories, obtained from in-depth interviews, reveal the negotiations that these women established with certain social meanings, beliefs, models, and obligations

MC Chang--Reproductive biologist of distinction 1908-1991.

This article reviews the remarkable life and major scientific achievements of the reproductive biologist M.C. Chang. His scholarly career progressed from university in Peking, via Edinburgh, Scotland, and Cambridge, England, to the newly founded Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology in Massachusetts. At each stage, the hand of fate is noted as are the support and encouragement of key professors. Chang's own contributions on capacitation of spermatozoa, in vitro fertilisation of mammalian eggs, and transplantation of oocytes and embryos are all brought out, as is his essential input to the creation and development of a steroid contraceptive pill. He strongly encouraged young reproductive biologists who worked in his laboratory, and applauded the world-wide distinction of his student and associate, R. Yanagimachi, as a specialist in mammalian fertilisation. Finally, Chang's continued feelings towards his homeland are contrasted with the reality of his American life after 1945, itself a study in poignancy.

"Momma's Got the Pill": How Anthony Comstock and Griswold v. Connecticut Shaped US Childbearing.

The 1960s ushered in a new era in US demographic history characterized by significantly lower fertility rates and smaller family sizes. What catalyzed these changes remains a matter of considerable debate. This paper exploits idiosyncratic variation in the language of "Comstock" statutes, enacted in the late 1800s, to quantify the role of the birth control pill in this transition. Almost 50 years after the contraceptive pill appeared on the US market, this analysis provides new evidence that it accelerated the post-1960 decline in marital fertility.

[The women and the right to contraceptives]. / Kvinnorna och rätten till preventivmedel.

During the first decades of the 20th century, many Swedish women were severely injured or died in complications following illegal abortions. Since legal abortion was forbidden, contraceptives were the only way to avoid pregnancy. But in the year 1910, a new Swedish law "Preventivlagen" prohibited any kind of advertising och public information considering contraceptives. They could still be sold in pharmacies or special medical stores, but it was no longer allowed to speak publicly about contraceptives in a leading manner. The punishment for disobeying was prison or fines. Some physicians and people involved in women liberation, public health and/or public education, claimed that the law brought negative medical, social and economic consequences, while others opposed the law being too soft. The law made the more than 100 years old question about contraceptives or not, a part of the medical, political and social agenda for the society. Some argument against contraceptives was concerned about the decreasing nativity rate--more use of contraceptives could make an even worse situation. Another reason was the fear of an increasing promiscuity if the contraceptives were more available. Still, many physicians and womens liberators did not se this as any big and important problems. They were more concerned about the women's health and her right to give birth to children at the time she wanted. Women had their right to be in charge of their lives, and should no longer be seen as victims of their biological nature. The right to contraceptives was not the only topic to be discussed during the late 19th century and the first decades of the 20th century. Another central right to be claimed, was the possibility for people, especially young people, to be educated in sexual questions. Many women and also women physicians fought for young peoples right to this information. The law "Preventivlagen" was abolished in 1938. After that, women hade their legal right to choose for themselves at what time they wanted to get pregnant and also the number of children.

The promise and performance of progestogens as contraceptives.

Progestogens were first suggested as possible contraceptives in the 1920s, but it was not until the early 1960s that effective progestogen-only contraceptive methods were developed. Since then it has become possible to deliver a range of different progestogens at varying doses, by a variety of routes, over greatly differing durations of time. Some of these systems have demonstrated extraordinarily high contraceptive efficacy with relatively few side-effects apart from unpredictable, but almost universal, disturbances of the menstrual pattern. It is now recognized that some systems may exhibit substantial non-contraceptive health benefits, which should become an important part of the overall performance profile of each method. The high technology and differing attributes associated with some of the systems raise important considerations in relation to user's perceptions and programmatic requirements. Overall, progestogens are able to offer women a varied range of valuable choices for contraception. The differing performance characteristics of these methods now provide women with a major portion of their current contraceptive choices.

Injectable contraception. New and existing options.

DMPA and MPA/E2C contraception offer women safe, effective, convenient, and reversible birth control choices. The use of DMPA, a 3-month injectable, is characteristically associated with amenorrhea. Lactating women and women in whom contraceptive doses of estrogen are contraindicated can use this progestin-only birth control method. Return of fertility can be delayed in women discontinuing DMPA to become pregnant. In some cases, the use of DMPA also confers important noncontraceptive and therapeutic benefits. A monthly estrogen/progestin injectable contraceptive, MPA/E2C should appeal to women who are concerned about daily pill taking, who prefer regular cycles to amenorrhea, and who find monthly injections acceptable and accessible. As is true for oral contraceptives, MPA/E2C represents an appropriate choice for women who prefer a rapidly reversible contraceptive. Currently, the proposed contraindications for MPA/E2C parallel those for combined oral contraceptives. As MPA/E2C contraception becomes available for American women, clinicians will learn how to best include this new method among the array of contraceptive choices. By individualizing contraceptive selection, counseling, and management approaches based on the relevant behavioral and medical considerations reviewed herein, clinicians can maximize their patients' success with injectable contraceptives. The more innovative that clinicians, family planning agencies, and insurers are in facilitating access to care (including reinjections), the more women will be able to avail themselves of safe, effective, and reversible methods of contraception. In addition to the physician's office or health clinic, other sites at which women might receive contraceptive injections include employee health clinics, college health clinics, or perhaps the pharmacy where the prescription is filled. Self-administration may become an appropriate option for some users of injectable contraception.

The history of steroidal contraceptive development: the estrogens.

PIP: Our understanding of estrogenic activity began in 1912, when Adler and Fellner in Vienna and Iscovesco in Paris obtained the first ovarian extracts and Haberlandt concluded that ovarian interstitial tissue inhibits ovulation during pregnancy, through the 1920s when Fellner produced sterility in rabbits and mice and Allen and Doisy isolated crystalline estrone. By 1930, Reiprich correctly assigned the antifertility action of the estrogens to pituitary inhibition. The testing of estrogenic materials for a variety of gynecological disorders continued in the 1930s, with researchers seemingly unaware of the earlier ovulation inhibition work. In 1936, Kurzrok predicted the prospects for hormonal sterilization in a paper that was largely ignored. Research continued on the use of estrogen to treat dysmenorrhea by inhibiting ovulation. At this point, contraception was not one of the many possible applications of this procedure under consideration. In 1945, Albright identified the potential of ovulation-inhibiting doses of estrogen as a contraceptive. His suggestion was also doomed to oblivion. Since none of the estrogens at that time were consistent in their ovulation-inhibiting effect, clinical trials would have been disastrous. In 1960, clinical trials with the 19-norprogestins took place in Mexico City. The oral contraceptives (OCs) were "contaminated" with mestranol, and research revealed that the ethinyl group has a special role in potentiating gonadotropin-suppressing action. This led to the development of "sequential" OCs, which in turn were replaced by monophasic formulations of lower dosage. By 1975, the dosages were reduced even further. Debates over proper dosage were confounded by the fact that mestranol must be demethylated to become biologically active. It is now known that plasma ethinyl estradiol levels are comparable from a single oral dose of 50 mcg mestranol and from 35 mcg ethinyl estradiol. Current research continues with the 11 beta-methoxy ethinyl estradiol, which is 10 times as potent as ethinyl estradiol and has some unusual metabolic features because it does not form oxidative metabolites.^ieng

[Barrier methods of contraception]. / Métodos anticonceptivos de barrera.

PIP: Vaginal methods of contraception were the earliest types used and some references to them date back to antiquity. Most of the vaginal contraceptive agents identified by the ancient Greeks, Indians, Japanese, and Chinese have been found in modern laboratory tests to have spermicidal properties, but it is doubtful that the methods were fully reliable or were used by many people. During the 19th century the condom, vaginal spermicides, and diaphragm became available. The development of nonoxynol-9 and other nonirritating but effective spermicidal agents improved vaginal contraceptives greatly by the 1950s, but starting in the 1960s newer methods began to replace the vaginal methods. Interest in barrier methods has been reawakened somewhat by concern about the health effects of hormonal methods. At present all barrier methods leave something to be desired. Failure rates of 3-30% for barrier methods in general have been estimated, but the higher rates are believed due to incorrect or inconsistent use. Theoretical failure rates of condoms and diaphragms have been estimated at 3/100 women-years, but in actual use failure rates may reach 15 for condoms and 13 for diaphragms used with spermicides. Use-effectiveness rates are greatly influenced by motivation. For a variety of reasons, the acceptability of barrier methods is low, especially in developing countries. New developments in spermicidal agents include sperm inhibitors, which impede the fertilizing capacity of sperm rather than attempting a spermicidal effect; a number of such agents have been studied and have proven more effective in animal tests than conventional spermicides. Neosampoon, a new spermicidal foam, has attracted an increasing number of users, especially in developing countries. A new condom, made of thin polymers and containing a standard dose of nonoxynol-9, has been designed to dissolve in the vaginal fluid. Further studies are needed of its acceptability, efficacy, and side effects before it becomes commercially available. 2 vaginal sponges, 1 of reconstituted bovine collagen and 1 of polyurethane containing nonoxynol-9, have recently been developed and the latter has successfully completed multicountry tests. Various new types of diaphragms that would require individual fitting are under study, as is a new long-acting cervical cap. Although vaginal methods have been studied and improved in recent years, their greater acceptance will probably depend on the attitude of family planning personnel, the motivation of the couple, and increased diffusion of information about them.^ieng