[Surgical intervention against overpopulation: Professor Weinhold's foreskin infibulation]. / Chirurgischer Eingriff gegen die Ubervölkerung: Professor Weinholds Vorhaut-Infibulation.

One of the most bizarre and forgotten suggestions to have developed from the discussion of pauperism in the 19th century was the infibulation of the impoverished men. A communication in 1827 from the Halle professor of surgery, Carl August Weinhold (1782-1829), raised indignation and caused ironic as well as angry reactions. Despite such a heated response, Weinhold's proposed method of population control soon fell into oblivion, a fate considered by this contemporaries as "highly desirable".

[Historical reflections on health protection and the condom]. / Egészségügytörténeti séta az óvszer körül.

PIP: The condom was first mentioned in a 1564 writing by Gabriel Fallopius as a means of protection against syphilis describing his tests on 1100 people. The name itself has been ascribed to the Latin word condere, Cum Domino, the French city of Condom, and doctor Quondom, the physician of the English King Charles II. The Marquis de Sade and Casanova used it to avoid venereal diseases (VDs). In London condom manufacturing started in the 18th century. Later it became a symbol of prostitution and immorality. The material used consisted of fish bladder or animal intestines (calf, sheep). The discovery of the rubber tree and the invention of vulcanization by the American technician Goodyear in 1840 made possible large-scale production. In Hungary the 1st rubber manufacturing plant EMERGE started production in 1893 along with toys and other wares. IN 1895 the HUngarian medial association warned about the spread of syphilis facilitated by the activities of 15,400 syphilitic prostitutes in the country. 30% of hospital patients had syphilis. The use of the condom was limited, and illegitimate births increased by 10.5% during the millennium celebrations of Hungary's existence in 1896. EMERGE manufactured condoms called Nono which were mostly distributed to soldiers during World War I, yet they had little popularity. US soldiers did not use the condoms either, as 7 million active days were lost due to VDs during World War II. In the 1950's Anna Ratko was Minister of Health in Hungary who opposed promotion of condoms to increase the population. The invention of penicillin in 1942 also pushed the condom to the background, but in the 1980's the epidemic of AIDS has made its use widespread.^ieng

Cum hastis sic clypeatis: the turbulent history of the condom.

PIP: The recommendation of the surgeon general of the US Public Health Service that individuals use the condom to prevent the risks of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and transmission has been poorly received. Many oppose it on the basis of the perception that condoms would promote continued sexual activity when the solution to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is to discourage such activity. Others raise questions about the efficacy of condoms in preventing HIV infection. Further, many advertisers are unwilling to promote a product about which they perceive disapproval on the part of large segments of the public. On the basis of the dire consequences of HIV infection and the absence of any effective treatment, it is difficult to rationalize this resistance. A historical analysis of condom use as a means of preventing sexually transmitted infections offers some insights into this apparent paradox. The 1st published description of the condom as an aid to the prevention of venereal infection appeared in "De Morbo Gallico," published in 1564. The use of "a small linen cloth made to fit the glans" was advised as a protection against syphilis. Condoms were advertised during the 18th century, usually by handbill. The medical community's reluctance to promote condoms as prophylactics was due to the fact that 18th century condoms were far inferior to modern varieties. Yet, beyond the issue of efficacy, other factors shaped medical thinking about condom use to prevent sexually transmitted infections. Most significant was the prominent association between condoms and sexual encounters outside marriage. Most 18th century references to condoms describe their utilization in the context of prostitution. The association of condoms with sexual intemperance, along with concerns about their efficacy, helped to support the idea that abstinence was the only acceptable prophylaxis for sexually transmitted disease. It was the exigencies of World War II that brought about the 1st, largescale systematic promotion of condoms to prevent venereal disease. Condom quality was much improved, yet the promotion was not without criticism. On the basis of historical precedent, one can expect negative reactions to accompany the recommendation that condoms be used to prevent transmission of HIV infection, yet it is important to recognize the contribution condoms can make and to separate their ability to prevent disease from their often turbulent past.^ieng

[Contraception--with us and others]. / Antikonception--hos oss och andra.

PIP: The history of contraception practices back to the ancient Egyptians, Jews, Romans, and Greeks, the evolution of condom use, and the problems inherent in religious and secular attitudes concerning contraception are surveyed. Ancient Egyptians already made use of certain intravaginal pessary and tampon types in combination with douches and incense to prevent pregnancy. Passages in the Bible refer to the practice of "coitus interruptus" as a preventive method, and the Greeks and Romans used sponges immersed in copper salt solution, oil of cedar, and olive oil. Abortion was officially banned in Rome; however, it was still practiced among the upper classes. Various practices used by the Arabs, Africans, and Europeans in the Middle Ages included the utilization of various oils and salts, plant roots, beeswax slices, green soap, and abstinence. The earliest mention of condom use is by Fallopius in the 16th Century; this linen sheath was primarily used against syphilis, as was its more advanced version described by Daniel Turner around 1700. Marquis de Sade recommended its use in combination with an intravaginal sponge. The invention of vulcanized rubber in the 19th Cenury led to its widespread use around the world, and the present threat of AIDS has made its advantages obvious. Secular attitudes about contraception emphasize the impact of urbanization and industrialization and their corrosive effects on the masses caught up in them without the benefit of contraception. Religious views, however, oppose contraception because of the fiats of Buddhist, Islamic, and Christian teachings. The individual's dilemma of trying to reconcile these conflicting attitudes is further explored.^ieng

[Barrier methods of contraception]. / Métodos anticonceptivos de barrera.

PIP: Vaginal methods of contraception were the earliest types used and some references to them date back to antiquity. Most of the vaginal contraceptive agents identified by the ancient Greeks, Indians, Japanese, and Chinese have been found in modern laboratory tests to have spermicidal properties, but it is doubtful that the methods were fully reliable or were used by many people. During the 19th century the condom, vaginal spermicides, and diaphragm became available. The development of nonoxynol-9 and other nonirritating but effective spermicidal agents improved vaginal contraceptives greatly by the 1950s, but starting in the 1960s newer methods began to replace the vaginal methods. Interest in barrier methods has been reawakened somewhat by concern about the health effects of hormonal methods. At present all barrier methods leave something to be desired. Failure rates of 3-30% for barrier methods in general have been estimated, but the higher rates are believed due to incorrect or inconsistent use. Theoretical failure rates of condoms and diaphragms have been estimated at 3/100 women-years, but in actual use failure rates may reach 15 for condoms and 13 for diaphragms used with spermicides. Use-effectiveness rates are greatly influenced by motivation. For a variety of reasons, the acceptability of barrier methods is low, especially in developing countries. New developments in spermicidal agents include sperm inhibitors, which impede the fertilizing capacity of sperm rather than attempting a spermicidal effect; a number of such agents have been studied and have proven more effective in animal tests than conventional spermicides. Neosampoon, a new spermicidal foam, has attracted an increasing number of users, especially in developing countries. A new condom, made of thin polymers and containing a standard dose of nonoxynol-9, has been designed to dissolve in the vaginal fluid. Further studies are needed of its acceptability, efficacy, and side effects before it becomes commercially available. 2 vaginal sponges, 1 of reconstituted bovine collagen and 1 of polyurethane containing nonoxynol-9, have recently been developed and the latter has successfully completed multicountry tests. Various new types of diaphragms that would require individual fitting are under study, as is a new long-acting cervical cap. Although vaginal methods have been studied and improved in recent years, their greater acceptance will probably depend on the attitude of family planning personnel, the motivation of the couple, and increased diffusion of information about them.^ieng

Barrier contraception: a comprehensive overview.

The barrier class of contraceptives used either alone or with supplementary spermicidal agents includes the most ancient of methods for the control of human fertility. Modern innovations have effected marked improvement in their efficacy and acceptability, so that they have become key means of controlling fertility in the world today. The traditional diaphragms and condoms decreased in popularity to some extent when methods such as the OCs and IUDs became available for general use. However, the plain or medicated barriers are regaining their rightful position in our contraceptive armamentarium as more and more questions are being raised about the real or potential adverse side effects of systemic and intrauterine contraceptives. There is evidence throughout the world of the growing popularity and use of locally acting mechanical and/or spermicidal contraceptive methods. Their impact upon the increasing world population can be expected to become even greater when the true need for the control of fertility becomes more generally recognized and appreciated.

[Is today's condom better than its reputation?]. / Ist das Kondom heute besser als sein Ruf?

In a statistical sample of 500 unwanted pregnancies surprisingly the share of women whose partners used a condom was not higher than the share of IUP-users (considering the relative frequency of use of both methods). This result was the motivation to investigate once more the use of the condom. After a short description of the history, the production, and the testing methods a discussion follows of the frequency of its use. In many countries the frequency of using the condom lies between that of hormonal oral contraceptives and the IUP. Today the reliability of the condom is higher than described in medical textbooks. In statistics of the seventies the failure rate is no more than 3 unwanted pregnancies in 100 years of usage. Harmful side effects or contraindications are not known. Therefore in cases of incompatibility or refusion of hormonal oral contraceptives reflections of the doctor on useful alternative methods of contraception should include the recommendation of the condom.

PIP: Various aspects of condom use are discussed. Condom use was widespread in London as early as the end of the 17th century. The condom was originally made from the intestines of sheep. After the discovery of the vulcanization of rubber, condoms were constructed of that material. Today, condoms can be electronically tested individually. The condom was ignored as a contraceptive for many years because family planning efforts tended to be oriented toward female contraceptive methods. The effectiveness of the condom has improved considerably over the years and can today be evaluated with a failure rate of 3.3%. Condom failures occur most often when sperm escapes from the condom as the penis contracts within it shortly after ejaculation. Condoms should be considered more often by physicians as a viable contraceptive measure, since condom effectiveness has improved, there are no contraindications to condom use, and condom use can protect against venereal disease and help alleviate premature ejaculation.