The Impact of Coracoid Tip Orientation on Subscapularis Tear Incidence: an MRI-Based Study.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: This study investigated the relationship between the position of the tip of the coracoid process (CP) relative to the glenoid with subscapularis (Ssc) tears. We hypothesized that the coracoid tip is more inferior, lateral and posterior in patients with Ssc tear. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This research enrolled 34 isolated Ssc tears and 44 controls. We introduced the axial central glenoid-coracoid angle (acGCA) and sagittal central glenoid-coracoid angle (scGCA) to evaluate the position of the tip of the CP relative to the glenoid center on MRI images. In both groups, acGCA, scGCA on MRI and critical shoulder angle (CSA), glenoid inclination (GI) on true anterior-posterior shoulder radiography were evaluated. RESULTS: When both groups were compared in terms of acGCA, the acGCA values of the Ssc tear group were significantly higher than the control group (p<0.001). The best cut-off value of acGCA for Ssc tears was 28.3°. acGCA values higher than 28.3° showed 93.3% sensitivity and 93.1% specificity for Ssc tears (likelihood ratio:13.53, AUC: 0.979, 95% CI of AUC: 0.950- 0.999). In terms of acGCA, the power analysis between Ssc tears group and control group was 99.9% between Ssc tears and the control group (effect size d=2.63). When both groups were compared in terms of scGCA, the scGCA values of the Ssc tear group were significantly higher than the control group (p<0.001). The best cut-off value of scGCA for Ssc tears was 41.4°. Scores of scGCA greater than 41.8° showed 80% sensitivity and 89.7% specificity for Ssc tears (likelihood ratio: 7.73, AUC: 0.899 95% CI of AUC: 0.837-0.958). In terms of scGCA, the power analysis between Ssc tear and control group was 99.8% (effect size d=1.23). When both groups were compared in terms of CSA and GI; CSA and GI values in the Ssc tear group were significantly higher (p<0.001 and p<0.012, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: AcGCA values higher than 28.3° indicate that the coracoid tip is located more laterally and posteriorly; scGCA values higher than 41.8° indicate that the coracoid tip is located more inferiorly and these two new indexes are showing that more laterally, posteriorly and inferiorly coracoid tip is related to subscapularis tears. KEY WORDS: coracoid process, subscapularis tear, coracoid morphology, scapula morphology.

Arthroscopic reduction and hollow screw internal fixation for Eyres Type IIIA scapular coracoid fracture: a case report.

BACKGROUND: A coracoid process fracture combined with an acromioclavicular (AC) joint dislocation is an uncommon injury that typically causes significant pain and limits shoulder movement. Open reduction and internal fixation have been the traditional treatment approach. However, arthroscopic techniques are emerging as a promising alternative for managing these injuries. CASE REPRESENTATION: A 35-year-old woman presented with right shoulder pain following an accidental fall. Imaging studies revealed a coracoid process fracture along with an AC joint dislocation. The fracture was classified as an Eyres Type IIIA, which warranted surgical intervention. Our team performed arthroscopic coracoid fracture reduction and internal fixation surgery, as well as AC joint dislocation repair using Kirschner wires. Six months after surgery, the patient demonstrated a satisfactory functional outcome with complete bone healing. CONCLUSION: This case report highlights the potential of arthroscopic reduction and fixation as a novel treatment option for fractures of the coracoid base.

A guideline for screw fixation of coracoid process base fracture by 3D simulation.

BACKGROUND: Fractures of the base of the coracoid process are relatively rare, but an increasing number of studies have reported using screws to fix coracoid process base fractures. This study was performed to simulate the surgical procedure and obtain the ideal diameter, length, insertion point and angle of the screw from a 3-D axial perspective in Chinese patients. METHODS: We randomly collected right scapula computed tomography (CT) scans from 100 adults. DICOM-formatted CT scan images were imported into Mimics software. A 3D digital model of the right scapula was established. Two virtual cylinders representing two screws were placed from the top of the coracoid process to the neck of the scapula and across the base of the coracoid process to fix the base of the coracoid process. The largest secure diameters and lengths of the virtual screws were measured. The positions of the insertion points and the directions of the screws were also examined. RESULTS: The screw insertion safe zone can exhibit an irregular fusiform shape according to the reconstructed scapula model. The mean maximum diameters of the medial and lateral screws were 7.08 ± 1.19 mm and 7.34 ± 1.11 mm, respectively. The mean maximum lengths of the medial and lateral screws were 43.11 ± 6.31 mm and 48.16 ± 6.94 mm, respectively. A screw insertion corridor with a diameter of at least 4.5 mm was found in all patients. We found sex-dependent differences in the mean maximum diameters and maximum lengths of the two screws. The positions of the two insertion points were statistically different across sexes. CONCLUSIONS: The study provides a valuable guideline for determining the largest secure corridor for two screws in fixing a fracture at the base of the coracoid process. For ideal screw placement, we suggest individualised preoperative 3D reconstruction simulations. Further biomechanical studies are needed to verify the function of the screws.

Long-term stability of coracoclavicular suture fixation for acute acromioclavicular joint separation.

PURPOSE: The optimal (SBJI) surgical treatment for acute acromioclavicular (AC) joint disruption remains controversial. What is being presented is the long-term functional outcomes of a double cross-looped coracoclavicular (CC) suture technique with the intention of restoring both anteroposterior and superior displacement of the clavicle. METHODS: Between 2007 and 2016, 81 patients underwent surgical reconstruction for acute acromioclavicular joint (AC) disruption in two orthopaedic centers. Two patients died for reasons unrelated to the treatment, and seven missed the final follow-up appointment, leaving 72 patients (67 males; 5 females; age 37 ± 12.4; range 15-64 years) for clinical and radiological assessments. All cases were classified according to the Rockwood classification as type III (n = 34), IV (n = 14) or V (n = 24). The dislocation was repaired with double cross-looped CC fixation using four Ethibond sutures passing underneath the coracoid and through a 4.5 mm drill hole in the clavicle in opposing directions to control both anteroposterior and vertical displacement. Radiological investigation preoperatively and at the last follow-up included anteroposterior and/or Zanca views, axillary or Alexander views, and comparative stress radiography of both AC joints. Patients were evaluated clinically with the Constant-Murley score (CMS) and Acromio Clavicular Joint Instability Score (ACJIS). Loss of reduction, subluxation, CC ligament ossification, post-traumatic arthritis, and peri-implant fractures were also recorded. RESULTS: Seventy-two patients were available for the last clinical and radiological evaluations. At a median follow-up period of 6.3 ± 2.1 years (range 3-12 years), the CMS and ACJIS were 92.1 ± 7.2 (range 60-100 points) and 90.4 ± 8.6 (range 45-100 points), respectively. Complications included 9 (12.5%) patients with slight loss of reduction, 2 (1.7%) with dislocation recurrence, 1 (1.3%) with superficial infection, 1 (1.3%) with a fracture of the lateral end of the clavicle, and 2 (1.7%) with persistent tenderness in the AC joint. The incidence of periarticular ossification was 22.4% and did not affect the final outcome. CONCLUSIONS: This technique represents an effective and low-cost treatment for acute AC joint separations. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV.

Treatment of coracoid process fractures: a systematic review.

INTRODUCTION: The coracoid process is a small hook-shaped feature on the scapula and a key structure of the superior shoulder suspensory complex (SSSC). Fractures of the coracoid are rare. Therefore, no consensus exists regarding treatment of coracoid process fractures. Systematically review indications, outcomes and complications of traumatic coracoid process fractures in adults, and to provide a treatment algorithm. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A systematic review was performed to identify all relevant studies on the treatment of coracoid process fractures. The methodological quality of the studies was scored using the Methodological Index for Non-Randomized Studies (MINORS). RESULTS: Eight case series, with a total of 110 coracoid process fractures, were included. All studies were of moderate methodological quality. Of the fractures, 78% were Ogawa type I fractures, 13% Ogawa type II and 9% were unclassified. Conservative treatment showed good results in most Ogawa type II fractures and type I fractures without associated disruptions of the SSSC. Most Ogawa type I fractures with associated disruptions of the SSSC received surgical treatment showing good results. CONCLUSION: Based on moderate quality studies, surgical treatment may be considered in Ogawa type I fractures with multiple disruptions of the SSSC. A conservative treatment seems sufficient in other fracture types.

Rare isolated coracoid mid-process fracture with displacement in an adolescent: Case report.

Isolated coracoid fractures (ICFs) are rare and the management is controversial. In this article, we report a displaced ICF, treated conservatively with success. A 12-year-old male patient presented with mild pain in his right shoulder after simple fall. Physical examination was normal except mild tenderness on the coracoid process and mildly limited active shoulder motion. Plain radiographs did not demonstrate any apparent finding of pathology. Computed tomography (CT) images revealed isolated coracoid mid-process fracture with displacement. Significant symptomatic relief as well as sufficient callus formation, confirmed by follow-up CT examination, was achieved after Velpeau sling use for four weeks. After a follow-up duration of 14 months, excellent clinical and radiologic outcomes were accomplished. The result of this case supports the efficiency of conservative treatment for ICFs in adolescents, even in the presence of considerable fracture displacement. Computed tomography imaging is a valuable diagnostic tool for the assessment of ICF.

Fractured coracoid process with acromioclavicular joint dislocation: A case report.

RATIONALE: Coracoid processes (CPs) fracture with acromioclavicular (AC) joint dislocation are extremely rare. This combined injury has brought many challenges to surgeons, and the mechanism underlying the injury is still not fully understood. There is no clear consensus on its treatment. PATIENT CONCERNS: Here, we describe a CP fracture with AC joint dislocation in a middle-aged manual worker. DIAGNOSIS: Radiographs showed a fracture of the base of the CP and a third-degree AC joint separation. INTERVENTIONS: The patient was treated surgically with open reduction and internal fixation of the AC joint by LCP clavicle hook plate, and the CP was fixed with a 3.5 mm diameter cannulated screw. OUTCOMES: Three months after the operation, shoulder function was completely restored, and the affected shoulder had full mobility with no tenderness. Plain film radiography showed anatomical indications of the healing of these combined injuries. LESSONS: Although AC joint dislocation with CP fractures is extremely rare in adults, it is important to remind and remember that this possibility exists. In unclear cases, special radiographic films and CT are necessary. Surgical treatment of AC joint dislocation with CP fractures can provide solid stability and restore normal shoulder function with an excellent prognosis.

Anatomic Restoration of Triple Disruption of the Superior Shoulder Suspensory Complex: A Case Report and Review of the Literature.

BACKGROUND: Multiple disruptions of the superior shoulder suspensory complex (SSSC) involving more than two components are extremely rare. In some extreme situations, three components of the SSSC structure can be involved. The ideal treatment for this type of injury is debatable. CASE PRESENTATION: A 21-year-old woman was referred to our emergency center following a traffic accident. A three-dimensional CT scan showed triple disruption of the SSSC involving concomitant ipsilateral fractures of the coracoid, the acromion, and the distal clavicle. The connection between the upper limber and the axial skeleton was destroyed. There was no evidence of associated injury and the neurovascular examination of the injured upper limb was normal. The patient underwent an open reduction and internal fixation to restore the anatomic integrity of the SSSC. The arm was supported in a broad arm sling for 2 weeks after surgery. Gentle passive range of motion activity under analgesic was encouraged from the second day postoperatively. One year and half after the operation, the patient had regained pain free and unrestricted shoulder stability and mobility. CONCLUSION: The manifestations of multiple disruptions of the SSSC may be variable. This case illustrated the challenges of treating the multiple disruption of the SSSC structure. It also showed that surgical intervention for this rare combination injury yields an excellent functional result. The good outcome achieved in this patient demonstrates that surgical intervention might be an optional resolution for multiple disruptions of the SSSC.

Subacute Acromioclavicular Dislocation After Basal Coracoid Process Fracture: Indirect Reduction without Open Reduction and Internal Fixation: A Case Report.

CASE: A 55-year-old man presented with an isolated undisplaced basal coracoid process (CP) fracture after direct trauma over his right shoulder. One week later, he presented with pain and anatomical deformity over the acromioclavicular joint (ACJ). Shoulder x-rays and computerized tomography revealed a complete acromioclavicular (AC) dislocation and displaced CP fracture. Anatomical AC reduction and ipsilateral coracoid fracture reduction were obtained using fixation with a hook plate. At 12-month follow-up, the patient regained functionality and showed complete CP consolidation and anatomic alignment of the ACJ. CONCLUSION: Our alternative treatment of coracoid fracture associated with secondary subacute AC dislocation showed satisfactory functional results.

Fractures of the Coracoid Process: Evaluation, Management, and Outcomes.

Fractures of the coracoid process are relatively rare, and current management guidelines remain unclear. Most coracoid fractures occur in conjunction with other shoulder injuries, including dislocations and fractures. Identifying coracoid fractures can be difficult because most fractures are nondisplaced and can be missed on radiographs or may be masked by other injuries. Management is largely guided by fracture location and displacement. Conservative treatment is preferred for fractures that are minimally displaced, whereas indications for surgical fixation include fractures that are displaced (>1 cm), have progressed to a painful nonunion, or are associated with the disruption of the superior shoulder suspensory complex. Although conservative treatment has been historically favored, satisfactory outcomes have been reported for both surgical and nonsurgical treatment. We provide a comprehensive review of diagnosis and management strategies for coracoid fractures.

Recurrent acromioclavicular joint dislocation with an associated coracoid fracture following acromioclavicular joint reconstruction.

Acromioclavicular joint injuries are common and account for up to 12% of all shoulder girdle injuries and have been reported as being as high as 50% in sports-related shoulder injuries. While the majority of acromioclavicular joint dislocations can be treated non-operatively, there are certain injury configurations, which can include high-grade dislocations in overhead athletes, where surgery may be indicated. The surgical management of acromioclavicular joint instability has moved towards recreating the action of the coracoclavicular ligaments by resuspending the clavicle on to the coracoid. Multiple techniques using high-strength sutures, synthetic ligaments, tendon allografts or autografts passed either around or through the coracoid process have been described. However, an unusual, but significant, complication associated with these techniques is an iatrogenic fracture of the coracoid process. We report the case of a patient with an iatrogenic coracoid fracture following two failed acromioclavicular joint resuspensory reconstructions using a synthetic ligament. This injury was successfully treated with an autologous hamstring graft reconstruction, initially protected with a hook plate.

[Open reduction and internal fixation for multiple injuries of superior shoulder suspensory complex with coracoid process fracture].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effectiveness of open reduction and internal fixation for multiple injuries of superior shoulder suspensory complex (SSSC) with coracoid process fracture. METHODS: Between January 2014 and October 2018, 22 patients with multiple injuries of SSSC with coracoid process fracture were treated by open reduction and internal fixation. There were 16 males and 6 females, aged from 24 to 72 years with an average age of 36.6 years. There were 10 cases of falling injury, 5 cases of traffic accident injury, and 7 cases of falling from height injury. All of them were fresh closed injuries. The time from injury to operation ranged from 2 to 17 days with an average of 6.9 days. Both X-ray film and CT showed the coracoid process fracture complicated with clavicular fracture in 14 cases, acromioclavicular joint dislocation in 12 cases, and acromioclavicular fracture in 5 cases. There were 14 cases of two places of SSSC, 7 cases of three places of SSSC, and 1 case of four places of SSSC. RESULTS: All incisions healed in primary stage after operation. All patients were followed up 10-24 months with an average of 14.1 months. X-ray films showed that all fractures healed and the acromioclavicular joint was normal. The healing time ranged from 6 to 12 months, with an average of 6.2 months. No complications such as internal fixation failure and nonunion occurred. According to University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) shoulder scoring system, the shoulder joint function was rated as excellent in 15 cases, good in 5 cases, and poor in 2 cases at last follow-up. The excellent and good rate was 90.9%. CONCLUSION: Open reduction and internal fixation for treatment of multiple injuries of SSSC with coracoid process fracture is firm and reliable. Combined with active postoperative rehabilitation program intervention, it can accelerate the recovery of shoulder joint function and achieve satisfactory effectiveness.

[Ipsilateral Fractures of the Coracoid and Acromion Process of the Scapula Combined with the Distal Clavicle End Fracture, Treatment Options]. / Ipsilaterální zlomenina processus coracoideus a akromionu lopatky v kombinaci se zlomeninou laterální cásti klavikuly, terapeutická moznost resení.

Superior Shoulder Suspensory Complex (SSSC) is a bone and soft-tissue ring securing the connection of the upper extremity to the axial skeleton via the clavicle and sternoclavicular joint. An isolated injury to one component of SSSC is usually stable. An injury to 2 of its components is a potential source of shoulder girdle instability and requires surgical stabilisation. An injury affecting 3 and more components is extremely rare and surgical stabilisation should be indicated. Our study presents the case of a 50-year-old man who fell off the bicycle and sustained a direct blow to his left shoulder resulting in an ipsilateral fracture of the coracoid and acromion process combined with the fracture of the distal end of the clavicle. Following a standard clinical examination and a subsequent X-ray and a CT scan with three-dimensional shoulder reconstruction, an open reduction and stabilisation of all the injured SSSC components was performed. Later, early and gradual rehabilitation of the shoulder girdle was commenced. At 48 weeks after the surgery, almost full range of motion of the shoulder joint was achieved and the muscle strength of the operated upper extremity was comparable to that of the healthy one. Key words:Superior Shoulder Suspensory Complex, fracture, acromion, coracoid process, clavicle.

Double-row fixation of the transferred coracoid process: a rescue technique for intraoperative coracoid fracture during the Latarjet procedure.

BACKGROUND: The Latarjet procedure is the preferred method to treat recurrent anterior shoulder instability with glenoid deficiency. An iatrogenic fracture of the transferred coracoid process is one possible intraoperative complication. METHODS: We propose a rescue technique using double-row suture bridge fixation. Double-loaded 4.5-mm suture anchors were placed medially in the scapular neck. These sutures were then brought over the top of the coracoid fragment, placed around the bony fragment, and fixated to the glenoid face with knotless suture anchors. RESULTS: Radiologic evidence of bone graft healing was observed in the desired position. CONCLUSIONS: We present a salvage procedure that will assist surgeons if an intraoperative fracture of the coracoid bone graft occurs during fixation when performing the Latarjet procedure.

Coracoid stress fracture in an elite fast bowler: description of a technique for CT-guided percutaneous screw fixation of coracoid fractures.

Coracoid stress fractures are a rare sports injury but present a management challenge, with the focus on optimising return-to-play, whilst minimising complications. Potential contributing mechanisms for the injury are briefly discussed and a novel approach to accurate fracture fixation under CT guidance is described. The ability of radiologists to orient themselves in 3D with a volume dataset on a workstation provides an image-guided option for percutaneous fixation that minimises risk of complications.

Coracoid process fractures: anatomy, injury patterns, multimodality imaging, and approach to management.

The coracoid process of the scapula is in close proximity to major neurovascular structures, including the brachial plexus and the axillary artery and vein. In addition, it serves as a major site of attachment for multiple tendons and ligaments about the shoulder. Isolated coracoid fractures are rare; however, they can be easily overlooked on routine shoulder radiographs. Importantly, when these fractures go undiagnosed, they are at high risk for nonunion. In this paper, we will review the relevant anatomy of the coracoid process, classification schemes for coracoid fractures, mechanisms of injury how these fractures typically present, multimodality imaging findings, and associated injuries. Finally, we will briefly discuss the clinical management of these fractures.

Clavicle and coracoid process periprosthetic fractures as late post-operative complications in arthroscopically assisted acromioclavicular joint stabilization.

PURPOSE: Arthroscopic-assisted stabilization surgery for acute acromioclavicular joint (ACJ) disruption shows excellent and reliable clinical outcomes. However, characteristic complications such as fracture of the clavicle and coracoid have been reported to occur during the early post-operative period. The main goal of this study was to highlight the occurrence of fractures as a late post-operative complication. The secondary goals were to describe possible fracture morphologies and treatment outcomes. METHOD: Patient records from a single surgery centre were searched for all patients presenting with late fracture complication following arthroscopically assisted acromioclavicular stabilization. Medical reports including the operative notes and pre- and post-operative X-rays were reviewed. A telephone interview was conducted with each patient to access the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons shoulder score. RESULTS: A total of four patients presented with late fracture complication following arthroscopic-assisted ACJ stabilization surgery. All patients were males and presented following trauma at a median duration of 19.5 months after the index surgery. Fracture morphology differed between patients; the treatment was conservative in three patients, while one patient underwent osteosynthesis. CONCLUSION: Traumatic peri-implant fractures can occur, even 2 years after arthroscopically assisted ACJ reconstruction. This needs to be considered when planning for surgical intervention in acute ACJ disruption, especially in a high-risk population. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic study, Level IV.

Current Concepts in the Operative Management of Acromioclavicular Dislocations: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Operative Techniques.

BACKGROUND: Acromioclavicular (AC) instability is a frequent injury affecting young and athletic populations. Symptomatic, high-grade dislocations may be managed by a myriad of operative techniques that utilize different grafts to achieve reduction. Comparative data are lacking on the ability of these techniques to achieve excellent patient outcomes and stable AC reduction and to minimize complications. PURPOSE: To systematically review the outcomes and complications of different techniques of AC joint reconstruction. STUDY DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analysis. METHODS: The MEDLINE, Scopus, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases were accessed to perform a systematic review of the scientific literature from 2000 to 2018 using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) criteria with the following keywords: "acromioclavicular" and "reconstruction." Included articles were evaluated for loss of reduction, complication rate, revision rate, and change in coracoclavicular distance. Articles were stratified by graft and surgical material used: suture only, Endobutton with suture, TightRope, GraftRope, synthetic artificial ligament, tendon graft, and Weaver-Dunn coracoacromial ligament transfer. These outcomes were pooled using a random-effects model and stratified by surgical technique and arthroscopic versus open reconstruction. RESULTS: Fifty-eight articles were included in the analysis, with 63 homogeneous populations composed of 1704 patients. The mean age was 37.1 years (range, 15-80 years) with a mean follow-up of 34.3 months (range, 1.5-186 months). The overall failure rate was 20.8% (95% CI, 16.9%-25.2%). The overall pooled complication rate was 14.2% (95% CI, 10.5%-18.8%). The most common complications were infection (6.3% [95% CI, 4.7%-8.2%]), fracture to the coracoid or distal clavicle (5.7% [95% CI, 4.3%-7.6%]), and hardware/button failure (4.2% [95% CI, 3.1%-5.8%]). There were no differences between arthroscopic and open techniques in regard to loss of reduction (P = .858), overall complication rate (P = .774), and revision rate (P = .390). Open surgery had a greater rate of clavicular/coracoid fractures than arthroscopic surgery (P = .048). Heterogeneity, best assessed from the pooled loss of reduction, was measured as I2 = 64.0%. CONCLUSION: Open and arthroscopic AC joint reconstruction techniques have no differences in loss of reduction, the complication rate, and the revision rate based on the available literature. Complications are significant, and profiles vary between surgical techniques, which should be evaluated in the decision making of selecting the technique.