Prevention of Complications in the Cardiac Intensive Care Unit: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association.

Contemporary cardiac intensive care units (CICUs) have an increasing prevalence of noncardiovascular comorbidities and multisystem organ dysfunction. However, little guidance exists to support the development of best-practice principles specific to the CICU. This scientific statement evaluates strategies to avoid the potentially preventable complications encountered within contemporary CICUs, focusing on those that are most applicable to the CICU environment. This scientific statement reviews evidence-based practices derived in non-CICU populations, assesses their relevance to CICU practice, and highlights key knowledge gaps warranting further investigation to attenuate patient risk.

Step-down units are cost-effective alternatives to coronary care units with non-inferior outcomes in the management of ST-elevation myocardial infarction patients after successful primary percutaneous coronary intervention.

Percutaneous coronary interventions (PCIs) within a door-to-balloon timing of 90 min have greatly decreased mortality and morbidity of ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients. Post-PCI, they are routinely transferred into the coronary care unit (CCU) regardless of the severity of their condition, resulting in frequent CCU overcrowding. This study assesses the feasibility of step-down units (SDUs) as an alternative to CCUs in the management of STEMI patients after successful PCI, to alleviate CCU overcrowding. Criteria of assessment include in-hospital complications, length of stay, cost-effectiveness, and patient outcomes up to a year after discharge from hospital. A retrospective case-control study was done using data of 294 adult STEMI patients admitted to the emergency departments of two training and research hospitals and successfully underwent primary PCI from 1 January 2014 to 31 December 2015. Patients were followed up for a year post-discharge. Student t test and χ2 test were done as univariate analysis to check for statistical significance of p < 0.05. Further regression analysis was done with respect to primary outcomes to adjust for major confounders. Patients managed in the SDU incurred significantly lower inpatient costs (p = 0.0003). No significant differences were found between the CCU and SDU patients in terms of patient characteristics, PCI characteristics, in-hospital complications, length of stay, and patient outcomes up to a year after discharge. The SDU is a viable cost-effective option for managing STEMI patients after successful primary PCI to avoid CCU overcrowding, with non-inferior patient outcomes as compared to the CCU.

Current perspectives on location of monitoring and length of stay following PPCI for ST elevation myocardial infarction.

IMPORTANCE: There is marked variability in location of care and hospital length of stay after primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). OBSERVATIONS: We performed a literature review on non-critical care monitoring and early discharge following primary percutaneous coronary intervention and describe a framework for implementation in the real world. The medical literature was searched from 1 January 1988 to 31 April 2019 using PubMed and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. Randomized clinical trials, observational studies and guideline statements were included. Available data suggest that carefully selected low-risk STEMI patients identified using Zwolle or CADILLAC risk stratification scores after primary percutaneous coronary intervention may be considered for discharge after 48 hours of hospital care. There was no increase in major adverse cardiac events, medication non-compliance or hospital readmission with this treatment strategy. There are limited data on non-critical monitoring of uncomplicated STEMI patients; however, given the low adverse events rate, this strategy is likely to be safe in selected patients and may facilitate reduced length of stay and reduce resource utilization. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Available evidence supports the safety of early discharge after 48 hours of care and omission of critical care monitoring in carefully selected patients following primary percutaneous coronary intervention. Early risk stratification and structured discharge planning are imperative. Adoption of this treatment strategy could reduce hospital costs, resource utilization and enhance patient satisfaction without affecting outcomes.

Updates in Congenital Heart Disease: Can Outcomes Improve?

Despite numerous advances in medical and surgical management, congenital heart disease (CHD) remains the number one cause of death in the first year of life from congenital malformations. The current strategies used to approach improving outcomes in CHD are varied. This article will discuss the recent impact of pulse oximetry screening for critical CHD, describe the contributions of advanced cardiac imaging in the neonate with CHD, and highlight the growing importance of quality improvement and safety programs in the cardiac intensive care unit.

Comparative effectiveness of the different components of care provided in heart failure clinics-protocol for a systematic review and network meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Heart failure (HF) is a complex chronic condition, leading to frequent hospitalization, decreased quality of life, and increased mortality. Current guidelines recommend that multidisciplinary care be provided in specialized HF clinics. A number of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of these clinics; however, there is a wide range in the services provided across different clinics. This network meta-analysis will aim to identify the aspects of HF clinic care that are associated with the best outcomes: a reduction in mortality, hospitalization, and visits to emergency department (ED) and improvements to quality of life. METHODS: Relevant electronic databases will be systematically searched to identify eligible studies. Controlled trials and observational cohort studies of adult (≥ 18 years of age) patients will be eligible for inclusion if they evaluate at least one component of guideline-based HF clinic care and report all-cause or HF-related mortality, hospitalizations, or ED visits or health-related quality of life assessed after a minimum follow-up of 30 days. Both controlled trials and observational studies will be included to allow us to compare the efficacy of the interventions in an ideal context versus their effectiveness in the real world. Two reviewers will independently perform both title and abstract full-text screenings and data abstraction. Study quality will be assessed through a modified Cochrane risk of bias tool for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or the ROBINS-I tool for observational studies. The strength of evidence will be assessed using a modified Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) system. Network meta-analysis methods will be applied to synthesize the evidence across included studies. To contrast findings between study designs, data from RCTs will be analyzed separately from non-randomized controlled trials and cohort studies. We will estimate both the probability that a particular component of care is the most effective and treatment effects for specified combinations of care. DISCUSSION: To our knowledge, this will be the first study to evaluate the comparative effectiveness of the different components of care offered in HF clinics. The findings from this systematic review will provide valuable insight about which components of HF clinic care are associated with improved outcomes, potentially informing clinical guidelines as well as the design of future care interventions in dedicated HF clinics. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO CRD42017058003.

Start-up of a Cardiology Day Hospital: Activity, Quality Care and Cost-effectiveness Analysis of the First Year of Operation.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: The cardiology day hospital (CDH) is an alternative to hospitalization for scheduled cardiological procedures. The aims of this study were to analyze the activity, quality of care and the cost-effectiveness of a CDH. METHODS: An observational descriptive study was conducted of the health care activity during the first year of operation of DHHA. The quality of care was analyzed through the substitution rate (outpatient procedures), cancellation rates, complications, and a satisfaction survey. For cost-effectiveness, we calculated the economic savings of avoided hospital stays. RESULTS: A total of 1646 patients were attended (mean age 69 ± 15 years, 60% men); 2550 procedures were scheduled with a cancellation rate of 4%. The most frequently cancelled procedure was electrical cardioversion. The substitution rate for scheduled invasive procedures was 66%. Only 1 patient required readmission after discharge from the CDH due to heart failure. Most surveyed patients (95%) considered the care received in the CDH to be good or very good. The saving due to outpatient-converted procedures made possible by the CDH was € 219 199.55, higher than the cost of the first year of operation. CONCLUSIONS: In our center, the CDH allowed more than two thirds of the invasive procedures to be performed on an outpatient basis, while maintaining the quality of care. In the first year of operation, the expenses due to its implementation were offset by a significant reduction in hospital admissions.

Cardiac Intensive Care Units: What Should Be the Standard of Care?

Since the creation of intensive care units (ICU) in the early 1960s, the central question of how to operate and staff them has continued to be an ongoing discussion. Early studies demonstrated decreased morality when staffing was altered from remote providers to full-time on-site providers. In addition to the shift towards full-time onsite providers, the structure of daily care has also undergone significant paradigm changes. Several studies have revealed the importance and benefit of multidisciplinary rounds with direct and open communication of daily goals. Particularly for cardiac patients in shock, two recent studies have provided hard data demonstrating a significant decrease in mortality in ICUs with full-time onsite providers. This benefit was even more pronounced for patients supported with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. These data support the practice of intensive care with (1) full-time onsite provider staffing, (2) multidisciplinary rounds, and (3) a safe environment with open communication between team members.

Editor's Choice-Prospective registry of cardiac critical illness in a modern tertiary care Cardiac Intensive Care Unit.

BACKGROUND: The changing landscape of care in the Cardiac Intensive Care Unit (CICU) has prompted efforts to redesign the structure and organization of advanced CICUs. Few studies have quantitatively characterized current demographics, diagnoses, and outcomes in the contemporary CICU. METHODS: We evaluated patients in a prospective observational database, created to support quality improvement and clinical care redesign in an AHA Level 1 (advanced) CICU at Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA. All consecutive patients (N=2193) admitted from 1 January 2015 to 31 December 2017 were included at the time of admission to the CICU. RESULTS: The median age was 65 years (43% >70 years) and 44% of patients were women. Non-cardiovascular comorbidities were common, including chronic kidney disease (27%), pulmonary disease (22%), and active cancer (13%). Only 7% of CICU admissions were primarily for an acute coronary syndrome, which was the seventh most common individual diagnosis. The top three reasons for admission to the CICU were shock/hypotension (26%), cardiopulmonary arrest (11%), or primary arrhythmia without arrest (9%). Respiratory failure was a primary or major secondary reason for triage to the CICU in 17%. In-hospital mortality was 17.6%. CONCLUSIONS: In a tertiary, academic, advanced CICU, patients are elderly with a high burden of non-cardiovascular comorbid conditions. Care has shifted from ACS toward predominantly shock and cardiac arrest, as well as non-ischemic conditions, and the mortality of these conditions is high. These data may be useful to guide cardiac critical care redesign.

Reducing Pressure Injuries in a Pediatric Cardiac Care Unit: A Quality Improvement Project.

The purpose of this quality improvement project was to develop an evidence-based protocol designed for pressure injury prevention for neonates and children in a pediatric cardiac care unit located in the Midwestern United States. The ultimate goal of the project was dissemination across all pediatric critical care and acute care inpatient arenas, but the focus of this initial iteration was neonates and children requiring cardiac surgery, extracorporeal support in the form of extracorporeal membranous oxygenation and ventricular assist devices in the cardiac care unit, or cardiac transplantation. A protocol based upon the National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel guidelines was developed and implemented in the pediatric cardiac care unit. Pediatric patients were monitored for pressure injury development for 6 months following protocol implementation. During the 40-month preintervention period, 60 hospital-acquired pressure injuries (HAPIs) were observed, 13 of which higher than stage 3. In the 6-month postintervention period, we observed zero HAPI greater than stage 2. We found that development and use of a standardized pressure injury prevention protocol reduced the incidence, prevalence, and severity of HAPIs among patients in our pediatric cardiac care unit.

Use of test weights for breastfeeding infants with congenital heart disease in a cardiac transitional care unit: a best practice implementation project.

OBJECTIVES: The goal of this project was to promote breastfeeding among infants with congenital heart disease in a quaternary care academic children's hospital. We aimed to increase the total number of breastfeeding episodes among all patients in the Pediatric Cardiac Transitional Care Unit with implementation of pre- and post-breastfeeding (test) weights. INTRODUCTION: Infants with congenital heart disease are able to breastfeed, but are often not encouraged to do so by healthcare providers. Fears and concerns relating to the inability to account for exact intake volumes through breastfeeding often prevent providers from supporting breastfeeding in these patients. METHODS: This project used Joanna Briggs Institute's Practical Application of Clinical Evidence System (JBI PACES) and Getting Research into Practice (GRiP) audit tool for promoting health practice change. A baseline medical record audit was conducted, followed by staff nurse education on breastfeeding test weights and the development of a parent education program. One follow-up audit measured compliance with best practice criteria for using breastfeeding test weights in infants with congenital heart disease. RESULTS: Compliance rates for use of breastfeeding test weights and provision of parent education, with baseline rates of 7% and 0%, respectively, rose to 90%. Identification of maternal intent to breastfeed upon admission to the unit increased to 78% compliance from 0%. Eighty-four percent of healthcare staff were educated on breastfeeding test weights. CONCLUSIONS: The safety of breastfeeding very ill infants was established. Breastfeeding episodes of all patients in the unit significantly increased after implementation of breastfeeding test weights and mothers of the sample patients expressed more confidence in breastfeeding their sick infants. Although barriers to breastfeeding for patients with congenital heart disease still persisted, this project had a positive impact on the culture of breastfeeding within the project unit. Increased healthcare provider education on breastfeeding will be essential to sustaining outcomes of this implementation.

A Belgian consensus strategy to identify familial hypercholesterolaemia in the coronary care unit and its subsequent cascade screening and treatment: BEL-FaHST (The BELgium Familial Hypercholesterolaemia STrategy).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) is an autosomal dominant lipoprotein disorder characterized by significant elevation of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and markedly increased risk of premature cardiovascular disease (CVD). Because of the very high coronary artery disease risk associated with this condition, the prevalence of FH among patients admitted for CVD outmatches many times the prevalence in the general population. Awareness of this disease is crucial for recognizing FH in the aftermath of a hospitalization of a patient with CVD, and also represents a unique opportunity to identify relatives of the index patient, who are unaware they have FH. This article aims to describe a feasible strategy to facilitate the detection and management of FH among patients hospitalized for CVD. METHODS: A multidisciplinary national panel of lipidologists, cardiologists, endocrinologists and cardio-geneticists developed a three-step diagnostic algorithm, each step including three key aspects of diagnosis, treatment and family care. RESULTS: A sequence of tasks was generated, starting with the process of suspecting FH amongst affected patients admitted for CVD, treating them to LDL-C target, finally culminating in extensive cascade-screening for FH in their family. Conceptually, the pathway is broken down into 3 phases to provide the treating physicians with a time-efficient chain of priorities. CONCLUSIONS: We emphasize the need for optimal collaboration between the various actors, starting with a "vigilant doctor" who actively develops the capability or framework to recognize potential FH patients, continuing with an "FH specialist", and finally involving the patient himself as "FH ambassador" to approach his/her family and facilitate cascade screening and subsequent treatment of relatives.

Risk-Adjusted Overall Mortality as a Quality Measure in the Cardiovascular Intensive Care Unit.

Risk-adjusted mortality has been proposed as a quality of care indicator to gauge cardiovascular intensive care Unit (CICU) performance. Mortality is easily measured, readily understandable, and a meaningful outcome for the patient, provider, administrative agencies, and other key stakeholders. Disease-specific risk-adjusted mortality is commonly used in cardiovascular medicine as an indicator of care quality, for external accreditation, and to determine payer reimbursement. However, the evidence base for overall risk-adjusted mortality in the CICU is limited, with most available data coming from the general critical care literature. In addition, existing risk-adjusted mortality models vary considerably in terms of approach and composition, and there is no nationally recognized standard. Thus, the objective of this study was to review the use of risk-adjusted mortality as a measure of overall unit performance and quality of care in the CICU. We found a considerable variability in the risk-adjustment methodology for cardiovascular disease. Although predictive models for disease-specific risk-adjusted mortality in cardiovascular disease have been developed, there are limited published data on overall risk-adjusted mortality for the CICU. Without standardization of risk-adjustment methodology, researchers are often required to use existing risk-adjustment models developed in noncardiac patient populations. Further studies are needed to establish whether risk-adjusted overall CICU mortality is a valid performance measure and whether it reflects care quality.

Use of a standardized care communication checklist during multidisciplinary rounds in pediatric cardiac intensive care: a best practice implementation project.

OBJECTIVES: This project aimed to improve thoroughness and continuity of care of patients in a pediatric cardiac intensive care unit. Specific objectives were to increase support of clinical nurse and family participation in multidisciplinary rounds (MDR), as well as full use of a multi-component Complex Care Checklist (CCC) by all nurses in this unit. INTRODUCTION: Communication and collaboration are paramount for safe care and positive outcomes of critically ill patients hospitalized in intensive care units. Nurse participation in daily patient rounding enhances individualized goal-setting. Concomitant use of a communication checklist promotes comprehensive delivery of care. METHODS: Evidence-based audit criteria were developed for this project which used the Joanna Briggs Institute Practical Application of Clinical Evidence System (JBI PACES) and Getting Research into Practice (GRiP) tools for promoting change in health practice. Direct observation of MDR processes was used to conduct a baseline and post-implementation audit. Intervention strategies relied primarily on nurse education tactics. RESULTS: Although attending physicians' and charge nurses' support and facilitation of clinical nurse presence during MDR rose substantially to 95% compliance, only moderate compliance (67%) was demonstrated for clinical nurses' attendance at and participation in MDR. Compliance with nurses' report of the patient's daily care plan and completion of CCC components during MDR improved moderately (52% and 54%). Family attendance at MDR did not improve. CONCLUSIONS: Project aims of enhanced thoroughness and continuity of care of patients with congenital heart defects were realized through an improved MDR process enhanced with a care communication checklist and clinical nurse participation. With the support of attending physicians and charge nurses, clinical nurses felt more empowered to address care concerns during MDR. The project outcomes indicated further activities are needed to assist nurses with a higher level of participating in MDR and using the CCC to its full potential. Continued evolution of the rounding process is imperative to adapting to patient needs and improving care.

Executive summary: Diagnosis and Treatment of Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infection: Clinical Guidelines of the Spanish Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (SEIMC) and the Spanish Society of Intensive Care Medicine and Coronary Units (SEMICYUC) / Resumen ejecutivo del documento de consenso sobre diagnóstico y tratamiento de la bacteriemia relacionada con catéter: Guía de Práctica Clínica de la Sociedad Española de Enfermedades Infecciosas (SEIMC) y de la Sociedad Española de Medicina Intensiva Crítica y Unidades Coronarias (SEMICYUC)

Catheter-related bloodstream infections (CRBSI) constitute an important cause of hospital-acquired infection associated with morbidity, mortality, and cost. The aim of these guidelines is to provide updated recommendations for the diagnosis and management of CRBSI in adults. Prevention of CRBSI is excluded. Experts in the field were designated by the two participating Societies (Sociedad Española de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica and the Sociedad Española de Medicina Intensiva, Crítica y Unidades Coronarias). Short-term peripheral venous catheters, non-tunneled and long-term central venous catheters, tunneled catheters and hemodialysis catheters are covered by these guidelines. The panel identified 39 key topics that were formulated in accordance with the PICO format. The strength of the recommendations and quality of the evidence were graded in accordance with ESCMID guidelines. Recommendations are made for the diagnosis of CRBSI with and without catheter removal and of tunnel infection. The document establishes the clinical situations in which a conservative diagnosis of CRBSI (diagnosis without catheter removal) is feasible. Recommendations are also made regarding empirical therapy, pathogen-specific treatment (coagulase-negative staphylococci, Sthaphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus spp, Gram-negative bacilli, and Candida spp), antibiotic lock therapy, diagnosis and management of suppurative thrombophlebitis and local complications (AU)

La bacteriemia relacionada con catéteres (BRC) constituye una causa importante de infección hospitalaria y se asocia con elevada morbilidad, mortalidad y costo. El objetivo de esta guía de práctica clínica es proporcionar recomendaciones actualizadas para el diagnóstico y el tratamiento de la BRC en pacientes adultos. De este documento se excluye la prevención de la BRC. Expertos en la materia fueron designados por las 2 sociedades participantes (Sociedad Española de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica y Sociedad Española de Medicina Intensiva, Crítica y Unidades Coronarias). Los catéteres venosos periféricos a corto plazo, los catéteres venosos centrales no tunelizados y de largo plazo, los catéteres tunelizados y los catéteres de hemodiálisis están incluidos por estas guías. El panel identificó 39 temas claves que fueron formulados de acuerdo con el formato PICO. La fuerza de las recomendaciones y la calidad de la evidencia se clasificaron de acuerdo con las directrices de la ESCMID. Se hacen recomendaciones para el diagnóstico de BRC con y sin extracción de catéter y de la infección en túnel. El documento establece las situaciones clínicas en las que es factible un diagnóstico conservador de CRBSI (diagnóstico sin retirada de catéter). También se hacen recomendaciones con respecto a la terapia empírica, el tratamiento específico según el patógeno identificado (estafilococos coagulasa negativos, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus spp, bacilos gramnegativos y Candida spp), la terapia con sellado del catéter, el diagnóstico, así como el tratamiento de la tromboflebitis supurativa y las complicaciones locales (AU)

Identifying the Factors Affecting Comfort and the Comfort Levels of Patients Hospitalized in the Coronary Care Unit.

Comfort, a concept associated with the art of nursing, is important for reducing the negative impact of hospitalization in a coronary care unit (CCU). Providing nursing interventions that ensure patient comfort is important for patients to respond positively to treatment. To determine the factors affecting comfort and the comfort levels of patients hospitalized in the CCU. A descriptive study. The study was conducted between December 2015 and February 2016 in the CCU of a state hospital located in Trabzon, Turkey. The sample consisted of 119 patients who complied with the criteria of inclusion for the study. Data were collected using the "Patient Information Form" and a "General Comfort Questionnaire." The mean patient comfort score was 3.22 ± 0.33, and we found significant relationships between comfort scores and age (r = -0.19; P = .03) and communication by nurses and physicians (P < .05). Regression analysis revealed that sufficient communication by physicians, education level, age, and having a companion were related to the comfort level (P < .05). Communication by nurses and physicians and having a companion could change the comfort levels of patients hospitalized in the CCU.

Recomendaciones para el tratamiento de los pacientes críticos de los Grupos de Trabajo de la Sociedad Española de Medicina Intensiva, Crítica y Unidades Coronarias (SEMICYUC) / Recommendations of the Working Groups from the Spanish Society of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine and Coronary Units (SEMICYUC) for the management of adult critically ill patients

La estandarización de la medicina intensiva puede mejorar el tratamiento del paciente crítico. No obstante, estos programas de estandarización no se han aplicado de forma generalizada en las unidades de cuidados intensivos (UCI). El objetivo de este trabajo es elaborar las recomendaciones para la estandarización del tratamiento de los pacientes críticos. Se seleccionó un panel de expertos de los trece grupos de trabajo (GT) de la Sociedad Española de Medicina Intensiva, Crítica y Unidades Coronarias (SEMICYUC), elegido por su experiencia clínica y/o científica para la realización de las recomendaciones. Se analizó la literatura publicada entre 2002 y 2016 sobre diferentes tópicos de los pacientes críticos. En reuniones de cada GT los expertos discutieron las propuestas y sintetizaron las conclusiones, que fueron finalmente aprobadas por los GT después de un amplio proceso de revisión interna realizado entre diciembre de 2015 y diciembre de 2016. Finalmente, se elaboraron un total de 65 recomendaciones, 5 por cada uno de los 13 GT. Estas recomendaciones se basan en la opinión de expertos y en el conocimiento científico y pretenden servir de guía para los intensivistas como una ayuda en el manejo de los pacientes críticos (AU)

The standardization of the Intensive Care Medicine may improve the management of the adult critically ill patient. However, these strategies have not been widely applied in the Intensive Care Units (ICUs). The aim is to elaborate the recommendations for the standardization of the treatment of critical patients. A panel of experts from the thirteen working groups (WG) of the Spanish Society of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine and Coronary Units (SEMICYUC) was selected and nominated by virtue of clinical expertise and/or scientific experience to carry out the recommendations. Available scientific literature in the management of adult critically ill patients from 2002 to 2016 was extracted. The clinical evidence was discussed and summarised by the experts in the course of a consensus finding of every WG and finally approved by the WGs after an extensive internal review process that was carried out between December 2015 and December 2016. A total of 65 recommendations were developed, of which 5 corresponded to each of the 13 WGs. These recommendations are based on the opinion of experts and scientific knowledge, and are intended as a guide for the intensivists in the management of critical patients (AU)

Distance to invasive heart centre, performance of acute coronary angiography, and angioplasty and associated outcome in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a nationwide study.

AIMS: To evaluate whether the distance from the site of event to an invasive heart centre, acute coronary angiography (CAG)/percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and hospital-level of care (invasive heart centre vs. local hospital) is associated with survival in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) patients. METHODS AND RESULTS: Nationwide historical follow-up study of 41 186 unselected OHCA patients, in whom resuscitation was attempted between 2001 and 2013, identified through the Danish Cardiac Arrest Registry. We observed an increase in the proportion of patients receiving bystander CPR (18% in 2001, 60% in 2013, P < 0.001), achieving return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) (10% in 2001, 29% in 2013, P < 0.001) and being admitted directly to an invasive centre (26% in 2001, 45% in 2013, P < 0.001). Simultaneously, 30-day survival rose from 5% in 2001 to 12% in 2013, P < 0.001. Among patients achieving ROSC, a larger proportion underwent acute CAG/PCI (5% in 2001, 27% in 2013, P < 0.001). The proportion of patients undergoing acute CAG/PCI annually in each region was defined as the CAG/PCI index. The following variables were associated with lower mortality in multivariable analyses: direct admission to invasive heart centre (HR 0.91, 95% CI: 0.89-0.93), CAG/PCI index (HR 0.33, 95% CI: 0.25-0.45), population density above 2000 per square kilometre (HR 0.94, 95% CI: 0.89-0.98), bystander CPR (HR 0.97, 95% CI: 0.95-0.99) and witnessed OHCA (HR 0.87, 95% CI: 0.85-0.89), whereas distance to the nearest invasive centre was not associated with survival. CONCLUSION: Admission to an invasive heart centre and regional performance of acute CAG/PCI were associated with improved survival in OHCA patients, whereas distance to the invasive centre was not. These results support a centralized strategy for immediate post-resuscitation care in OHCA patients.

The Cardiovascular Intensive Care Unit-An Evolving Model for Health Care Delivery.

Prior to the advent of the coronary care unit (CCU), patients having an acute myocardial infarction (AMI) were managed on the general medicine wards with reported mortality rates of greater than 30%. The first CCUs are believed to be responsible for reducing mortality attributed to AMI by as much as 40%. This drastic improvement can be attributed to both advances in medical technology and in the process of health care delivery. Evolving considerably since the 1960s, the CCU is now more appropriately labeled as a cardiac intensive care unit (CICU) and represents a comprehensive system designed for the care of patients with an array of advanced cardiovascular disease, an entity that reaches far beyond its early association with AMI. Grouping of patients by diagnosis to a common physical space, dedicated teams of health care providers, as well as the development and implementation of evidence-based treatment algorithms have resulted in the delivery of safer, more efficient care, and most importantly better patient outcomes. The CICU serves as a platform for an integrated, team-based patient care delivery system that addresses a broad spectrum of patient needs. Lessons learned from this model can be broadly applied to address the urgent need to improve outcomes and efficiency in a variety of health care settings.