Metabolomics-Based Effects of a Natural Product on Remyelination After Cerebral Ischemia Injury Via GABABR-pCREB-BDNF Pathway.

BACKGROUND: Yi-Qi-Tong-Luo Granules (YQTLs) is a natural compound of Traditional Chinese Medicine authorized by China Food and Drug Administration (CFDA). These granules are employed in the convalescent stage of cerebral infarction and render notable clinical efficacy. This study aims to uncover the underlying mechanisms of YQTLs on remyelination after cerebral ischemia injury. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We established cerebral ischemia model in rats using microsphere-induced multiple cerebral infarction (MCI). We evaluated the pharmacological effects of YQTLs on MCI rats, through Morri's water maze test, open field test, hematoxylin and eosin staining, and glycine silver immersion. We employed liquid chromatography mass spectrometry metabolomics to identify differential metabolites. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was utilized to measure the release of neurotrophins, while immunofluorescence staining was used to assess oligodendrocyte precursor cells differences and myelin regeneration. We used Western blotting to validate the protein expression of remyelination-associated signaling pathways. RESULTS: YQTLs significantly improves cognitive function following cerebral ischemia injury. Pathological tissue staining revealed that YQTLs administration inhibits neuronal denaturation and neurofibrillary tangles. We identified 141 differential metabolites among the sham, MCI, and YQTLs-treated MCI groups. Among these metabolites, neurotransmitters were identified, and notably, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) showed marked improvement in the YQTLs group. The induction of neurotrophins, such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and PDGFAA, upregulation of olig2 and MBP expression, and promotion of remyelination were evident in YQTLs-treated MCI groups. Gamma-aminobutyric acid B receptors (GABABR), pERK/extracellular regulated MAP kinase, pAKT/protein kinase B, and pCREB/cAMP response element-binding were upregulated following YQTLs treatment. CONCLUSION: YQTLs enhance the binding of GABA to GABABR, thereby activating the pCREB/BDNF signaling pathway, which in turn increases the expression of downstream myelin-associated proteins and promotes remyelination and cognitive function.

GLP-1(7-36) protected against oxidative damage and neuronal apoptosis in the hippocampal CA region after traumatic brain injury by regulating ERK5/CREB.

BACKGROUND: Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) (7-36) amide, an endogenous active form of GLP-1, has been shown to modulate oxidative stress and neuronal cell survival in various neurological diseases. OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the potential effects of GLP-1(7-36) on oxidative stress and apoptosis in neuronal cells following traumatic brain injury (TBI) and explored the underlying mechanisms. METHODS: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) models were established in male SD rats for in vivo experiments. The extent of cerebral oedema was assessed using wet-to-dry weight ratios following GLP-1(7-36) intervention. Neurological dysfunction and cognitive impairment were evaluated through behavioural experiments. Histopathological changes in the brain were observed using haematoxylin and eosin staining. Oxidative stress levels in hippocampal tissues were measured. TUNEL staining and Western blotting were employed to examine cell apoptosis. In vitro experiments evaluated the extent of oxidative stress and neural apoptosis following ERK5 phosphorylation activation. Immunofluorescence colocalization of p-ERK5 and NeuN was analysed using immunofluorescence cytochemistry. RESULTS: Rats with TBI exhibited neurological deterioration, increased oxidative stress, and enhanced apoptosis, which were ameliorated by GLP-1(7-36) treatment. Notably, GLP-1(7-36) induced ERK5 phosphorylation in TBI rats. However, upon ERK5 inhibition, oxidative stress and neuronal apoptosis levels were elevated, even in the presence of GLP-1(7-36). CONCLUSION: In summary, this study suggested that GLP-1(7-36) suppressed oxidative damage and neuronal apoptosis after TBI by activating ERK5/CREB.

Phoenixin-20 ameliorates Sevoflurane inhalation-induced post-operative cognitive dysfunction in rats via activation of the PKA/CREB signaling.

Post-operative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is a common complication after surgery due to the usage of anesthetics, such as Sevoflurane, which severely impacts the life quality of patients. Currently, the pathogenesis of Sevoflurane-induced POCD has not been fully elucidated but is reportedly involved with oxidative stress (OS) injury and aggravated inflammation. Phoenixin-20 (PNX-20) is a PNX peptide consisting of 20 amino acids with promising inhibitory effects on OS and inflammation. Herein, we proposed to explore the potential protective function of PNX-20 on Sevoflurane inhalation-induced POCD in rats. Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were treated with 100 ng/g PNX-20 for 7 days with or without pre-inhalation with 2.2% Sevoflurane. Markedly increased escape latency and decreased time in the target quadrant in the Morris water maze (MWM) test, and aggravated pathological changes and apoptosis in the hippocampus tissue were observed in Sevoflurane-treated rats, which were markedly attenuated by PNX-20. Furthermore, the aggravated inflammation and OS in the hippocampus observed in Sevoflurane-treated rats were notably abolished by PNX-20. Moreover, the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), protein kinase A (PKA), and phospho-cAMP response element binding protein/cAMP response element binding protein (p-CREB/CREB) levels were markedly decreased in Sevoflurane-treated rats, which were memorably increased by PNX-20. Our results indicated that PNX-20 ameliorated Sevoflurane inhalation-induced POCD in rats via the activation of PKA/CREB signaling, which might supply a new treatment approach for POCD.

Calycosin, a Common Dietary Isoflavonoid, Suppresses Melanogenesis through the Downregulation of PKA/CREB and p38 MAPK Signaling Pathways.

Calycosin, a bioactive isoflavonoid isolated from root extracts of Astragalus membranaceus, has been reported to inhibit melanogenesis, the mechanism of which remains undefined. In this study, we interrogated the mechanistic basis by which calycosin inhibits melanin production in two model systems, i.e., B16F10 melanoma cells and zebrafish embryos. Calycosin was effective in protecting B16F10 cells from α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH)-induced melanogenesis and tyrosinase activity. This anti-melanogenic effect was accompanied by decreased expression levels of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), a key protein controlling melanin synthesis, and its target genes tyrosinase and tyrosinase-related protein-2 (TRP-2) in calycosin-treated cells. Mechanistically, we obtained the first evidence that calycosin-mediated MITF downregulation was attributable to its ability to block signaling pathways mediated by cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and p38 MAP kinase. The protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor H-89 and p38 inhibitor SB203580 validated the premise that calycosin inhibits melanin synthesis and tyrosinase activity by regulating the PKA/CREB and p38 MAPK signaling pathways. Moreover, the in vivo anti-melanogenic efficacy of calycosin was manifested by its ability to suppress body pigmentation and tyrosinase activity in zebrafish embryos. Together, these data suggested the translational potential of calycosin to be developed as skin-lightening cosmeceuticals.

Dapagliflozin diminishes memory and cognition impairment in Streptozotocin induced diabetes through its effect on Wnt/ß-Catenin and CREB pathway.

Diabetic neuropathy is a chronic condition that affects a significant number of individuals with diabetes. Streptozotocin injection intraperitoneally to rodents produces pancreatic islet ß-cell destruction causing hyperglycemia, which affect the brain leading to memory and cognition impairment. Dapagliflozin may be able to reverse beta-cell injury and alleviate this impairment. This effect may be via neuroprotective effect or possible involvement of the antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic properties. Forty rats were divided into four groups as follows: The normal control group, STZ-induced diabetes group, STZ-induced diabetic rats followed by treatment with oral dapagliflozin group and normal rats treated with oral dapagliflozin. Behavioral tests (Object location memory task and Morris water maze) were performed. Serum biomarkers (blood glucose and insulin) were measured and then the homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was calculated. In the hippocampus the followings were determined; calmodulin, ca-calmodulin kinase Ⅳ (CaMKIV), protein kinase A (PKA) and cAMP-responsive element-binding protein to determine the transcription factor CREB and its signaling pathway also Wnt signaling pathway and related parameters (WnT, B-catenin, lymphoid enhancer binding factor LEF, glycogen synthase kinase 3ß). Moreover, nuclear receptor-related protein-1, acetylcholine and its hydrolyzing enzyme acetylcholine esterase, oxidative stress parameter malondialdehyde (MDA) and apoptotic parameter caspase-3 were determined. STZ was able to cause destruction to pancreatic ß-cells which was reflected on glucose levels causing diabetes. Diabetic neuropathy was clear in the rats performing the behavioral tests. Memory and cognition parameters in the hippocampus were negatively affected. Oxidative stress and apoptotic parameter were elevated while the electrical activity was declined. Dapagliflozin was able to reverse the previously mentioned parameters and behavior. Thus, to say dapagliflozin significantly showed neuroprotective action along with antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic properties.

Polydatin protects neuronal cells from hydrogen peroxide damage by activating CREB/Ngb signaling.

Oxidative stress­induced neuronal cell death contributes significantly to the physiological processes of a number of neurological disorders. Polydatin (PD) has been reported to protect against Alzheimer's disease (AD), ischemic stroke and traumatic brain injury. However, the underlying neuroprotective mechanisms remain to be elucidated. The current study suggested that PD activates AKT/cAMP response element­binding protein (CREB) signaling and induces neuroglobin (Ngb) to protect neuronal cells from hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in vitro. PD inhibited the H2O2­induced neuronal cell death of primary mouse cortical neurons and N2a cells. Functional studies showed that PD attenuated H2O2­induced mitochondrial dysfunction and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production. Mechanistically, PD was verified to induce the phosphorylation of AKT and CREB and increase the protein level of Ngb. The luciferase assay results showed that Ngb transcriptional activity was activated by CREB, especially after PD treatment. It was further indicated that PD increased the transcription of Ngb by enhancing the binding of CREB to the promoter region of Ngb. Finally, Ngb knockdown largely attenuated the neuroprotective role of PD against H2O2. The results indicated that PD protected neuronal cells from H2O2 by activating CREB/Ngb signaling in neuronal cells, indicating that PD has a neuroprotective effect against neurodegenerative diseases.

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB protects dopaminergic neurons via activation of Akt/ERK/CREB pathways to upregulate tyrosine hydroxylase.

AIMS: The neurotropic growth factor PDGF-BB was shown to have vital neurorestorative functions in various animal models of Parkinson's disease (PD). Previous studies indicated that the regenerative property of PDGF-BB contributes to the increased intensity of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) fibers in vivo. However, whether PDGF-BB directly modulates the expression of TH, and the underlying mechanism is still unknown. We will carefully examine this in our current study. METHOD: MPTP-lesion mice received PDGF-BB treatment via intracerebroventricular (i.c.v) administration, and the expression of TH in different brain regions was assessed by RT-PCR, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry staining. The molecular mechanisms of PDGF-BB-mediated TH upregulation were examined by RT-PCR, Western blot, ChIP assay, luciferase reporter assay, and immunocytochemistry. RESULTS: We validated a reversal expression of TH in MPTP-lesion mice upon i.c.v administration of PDGF-BB for seven days. Similar effects of PDGF-BB-mediated TH upregulation were also observed in MPP+ -treated primary neuronal culture and dopaminergic neuronal cell line SH-SY5Y cells. We next demonstrated that PDGF-BB rapidly activated the pro-survival PI3K/Akt and MAPK/ERK signaling pathways, as well as the downstream CREB in SH-SY5Y cells. We further confirmed the significant induction of p-CREB in PDGF-BB-treated animals in vivo. Using a genetic approach, we demonstrated that the transcription factor CREB is critical for PDGF-BB-mediated TH expression. The activation and nucleus translocation of CREB were promoted in PDGF-BB-treated SH-SY5Y cells, and the enrichment of CREB on the promoter region of TH gene was also increased upon PDGF-BB treatment. CONCLUSION: Our data demonstrated that PDGF-BB directly regulated the expression of TH via activating the downstream Akt/ERK/CREB signaling pathways. Our finding will further support the therapeutic potential of PDGF-BB in PD, and provide the possibility that targeting PDGF signaling can be harnessed as an adjunctive therapy in PD in the future.

Dimethyl fumarate abridged tauo-/amyloidopathy in a D-Galactose/ovariectomy-induced Alzheimer's-like disease: Modulation of AMPK/SIRT-1, AKT/CREB/BDNF, AKT/GSK-3ß, adiponectin/Adipo1R, and NF-κB/IL-1ß/ROS trajectories.

Since the role of estrogen in postmenauposal-associated dementia is still debatable, this issue urges the search for other medications. Dimethyl fumarate (DMF) is a drug used for the treatment of multiple sclerosis and has shown a neuroprotective effect against other neurodegenerative diseases. Accordingly, the present study aimed to evaluate the effect of DMF on an experimental model of Alzheimer disease (AD) using D-galactose (D-Gal) administered to ovariectomized (OVX) rats, resembling a postmenopausal dementia paradigm. Adult 18-month old female Wistar rats were allocated into sham-operated and OVX/D-Gal groups that were either left untreated or treated with DMF for 56 days starting three weeks after sham-operation or ovariectomy. DMF succeeded to ameliorate cognitive (learning/short- and long-term memory) deficits and to enhance the dampened overall activity (NOR, Barnes-/Y-maze tests). These behavioral upturns were associated with increased intact neurons (Nissl stain) and a reduction in OVX/D-Gal-mediated hippocampal CA1 neurodegeneration and astrocyte activation assessed as GFAP immunoreactivity. Mechanistically, DMF suppressed the hippocampal contents of AD-surrogate markers; viz., apolipoprotein (APO)-E1, BACE1, Aß42, and hyperphosphorylated Tau. Additionally, DMF has augmented the neuroprotective parameters p-AKT, its downstream target CREB and BDNF. Besides, it activated AMPK, and enhanced SIRT-1, as well as antioxidant defenses (SOD, GSH). On the other hand, DMF inhibited the transcription factor NF-κB, IL-1ß, adiponectin/adiponectin receptor type (AdipoR)1, GSK-3ß, and MDA. Accordingly, in this postmenopausal AD model, DMF treatment by pursuing the adiponectin/AdipoR1, AMPK/SIRT-1, AKT/CREB/BDNF, AKT/GSK-3ß, and APO-E1 quartet hampered the associated tauo-/amyloidopathy and NF-κB-mediated oxidative/inflammatory responses to advance insights into its anti-amnesic effect.

Flavonoid fisetin reverses impaired hippocampal synaptic plasticity and cognitive function by regulating the function of AMPARs in a male rat model of schizophrenia.

Cognitive deficits are the core feature of schizophrenia and effective treatment strategies are still missing. Previous studies have reported that fisetin promotes long-term potentiation (LTP) and cognitive function in normal rodents and other model animals of neurological diseases. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of fisetin on synaptic plasticity and cognitive deficits caused by a brief disruption of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) with dizocilpine (MK-801) during early development in rats. The cognitive performance was examined by the Morris water maze task and a fear conditioning test. Hippocampal synaptic plasticity was investigated by field potential recording. The expression of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid receptors (AMPARs) and cognition-related proteins was measured by western blotting. We found that intraperitoneal administration of fisetin rescued hippocampus-dependent spatial and contextual fear memory in MK-801 rats. In parallel with these behavioral results, fisetin treatment in MK-801 rats reversed the impairment of hippocampal LTP. At the molecular level, fisetin treatment selectively increased the phosphorylation and surface expression of AMPA receptor subunit 1 (GluA1) in MK-801-treated rats. Moreover, fisetin restored the phosphorylation levels of calcium-calmodulin-dependent kinaseII (CaMKII), cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) in MK-801-treated rats. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that fisetin treatment can reverse the deficits of hippocampal synaptic plasticity and memory in a male rat model of schizophrenia by restoring the phosphorylation and surface expression of AMPAR GluA1 subunit, suggesting fisetin as a promising therapeutic candidate for schizophrenia-associated cognitive deficits.

Dl-3-n-butylphthalide inhibits neuroinflammation by stimulating foxp3 and Ki-67 in an ischemic stroke model.

Dl-3-n-butylphthalide (NBP) has been widely used to treat ischemic stroke in China. To investigate the mechanisms underlying NBP activity, we established a permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO) rat model and injected the rats with 4 mg/kg/d NBP for nine days. We then assessed neuroinflammation, neovascularization and nerve regeneration within the brain. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-TOF MSI) was used to determine the phospholipid distribution, while laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry imaging (LA-ICP MSI) was used to measure Foxp3, Ki-67 and pCREB levels in the brain. Immunohistochemistry was used to investigate the expression of NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) and its inflammatory products, caspase-1 and interleukin-1ß, in brain tissues. NBP attenuated ischemic damage and ameliorated neurological deficits in rats with pMCAO. In the ischemic brain region, NBP reduced phosphatidylethanolamine (18:0), NLRP3, caspase-1 and interleukin-1ß levels, but increased levels of Foxp3, Ki-67, pCREB and several phospholipids. In molecular docking analyses, NBP bound to NLRP3, interleukin-1ß, caspase-1, Foxp3, and Ki-67. These results demonstrate that NBP reduces neuroinflammation in brain tissues and promotes nerve and blood vessel regeneration, thus protecting neuromorphology and function.

Thrombin Signaling Contributes to High Glucose-Induced Injury of Human Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells.

BACKGROUND: Diabetes is one of the strongest disease-related risk factors for Alzheimer's disease (AD). In diabetics, hyperglycemia-induced microvascular complications are the major cause of end-organ injury, contributing to morbidity and mortality. Microvascular pathology is also an important and early feature of AD. The cerebral microvasculature may be a point of convergence of both diseases. Several lines of evidence also implicate thrombin in AD as well as in diabetes. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to investigate the role of thrombin in glucose-induced brain microvascular endothelial injury. METHODS: Cultured Human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMVECs) were treated with 30 mM glucose±100 nM thrombin and±250 nM Dabigatran or inhibitors of PAR1, p38MAPK, MMP2, or MMP9. Cytotoxicity and thrombin activity assays on supernatants and western blotting for protein expression in lysates were performed. RESULTS: reatment of HBMVECs with 30 mM glucose increased thrombin activity and expression of inflammatory proteins TNFα, IL-6, and MMPs 2 and 9; this elevation was reduced by the thrombin inhibitor dabigatran. Direct treatment of brain endothelial cells with thrombin upregulated p38MAPK and CREB, and induced TNFα, IL6, MMP2, and MMP9 as well as oxidative stress proteins NOX4 and iNOS. Inhibition of thrombin, thrombin receptor PAR1 or p38MAPK decrease expression of inflammatory and oxidative stress proteins, implying that thrombin may play a central role in glucose-induced endothelial injury. CONCLUSION: Since preventing brain endothelial injury would preserve blood-brain barrier integrity, prevent neuroinflammation, and retain intact functioning of the neurovascular unit, inhibiting thrombin, or its downstream signaling effectors, could be a therapeutic strategy for mitigating diabetes-induced dementia.

Vascular endothelial growth factor on Runt-related transcript factor-2 in aortic valve cells.

BACKGROUND: Calcific aortic valve disease is associated with ageing and high mortality. However, no effective pharmacological treatment has been developed. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptor are overexpressed in the calcified aortic valve tissue. However, the role of VEGF in calcific aortic valve disease pathogenesis and its underlying mechanisms remain unclear. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Runt-related transcription factor 2 expression and calcium-related signalling were investigated in porcine valvular interstitial cells with or without human VEGF-A recombinant protein (VEGF165 , 1-100 ng/mL) treatment and/or calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) inhibitor (KN93, 10 µmol/L) and inositol triphosphate receptor inhibitor (2-aminoethyldiphenyl borate, 30 µmol/L) for 5 days. RESULTS: VEGF165 -treated cells had higher Runt-related transcription factor 2 expression and CaMKII/ adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate response element-binding protein (CREB) signalling activation than did control cells. KN93 reduced Runt-related transcription factor 2 expression and CREB phosphorylation in VEGF165 -treated cells. The 2-aminoethyldiphenyl borate also reduced Runt-related transcription factor 2 expression in VICs treated with VEGF165 . CONCLUSION: VEGF upregulated Runt-related transcription factor 2 expression in VICs by activating the IP3R/CaMKII/CREB signalling pathway.

Norepinephrine in the dentate gyrus is involved in spatial learning and memory alteration induced by chronic restraint stress in aged rats.

The role of norepinephrine of the hippocampal dentate gyrus in spatial learning and memory alteration induced by chronic restraint stress (CRS, 3 h/day, 6 weeks) was investigated in aged rats. Spatial learning and memory were assessed by the Morris water maze (MWM), and the extracellular concentration of norepinephrine and amplitude of field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP) were measured in the dentate gyrus during MWM test in freely-moving rats. Next, the involvement of ß-adrenoceptors in spatial learning and memory of CRS rats was examined by microinjection of its antagonist (propranolol) into the dentate gyrus. In addition, we observed the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein and activation of cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) in the dentate gyrus. Compared with the control group, the basal level of norepinephrine, BDNF expression and CREB activation in the dentate gyrus were increased, and the spatial learning and memory abilities were enhanced in CRS rats. In the control group, the norepinephrine concentration and fEPSP amplitude in the dentate gyrus were increased on the second to fourth days of MWM test, and these responses were significantly enhanced in CRS rats. Furthermore, in CRS rats, propranolol significantly decreased the spatial learning and memory abilities, and attenuated the fEPSP response during MWM test, and the BDNF expression and CREB activation in the dentate gyrus. Our results suggest that norepinephrine activation of ß-adrenoceptors in the hippocampal dentate gyrus is involved in spatial learning and memory enhancement induced by CRS in aged rats, in part via modulations of synaptic efficiency and CREB-BDNF signaling pathway.

Distinct effects on cAMP signaling of carbamazepine and its structural derivatives do not correlate with their clinical efficacy in epilepsy.

The antiepileptic sodium channel blocker, carbamazepine, has long been known to be able to attenuate cAMP signals. This could be of clinical importance since cAMP signaling has been shown to be involved in epileptogenesis and seizures. However, no information on the ability to affect cAMP signaling is available for the marketed structural derivatives, oxcarbazepine and eslicarbazepine acetate or their dominating metabolite, licarbazepine. Thus, we employed a HEK293 cell line stably expressing a cAMP biosensor to assess the effect of these two drugs on cAMP accumulation. We find that oxcarbazepine does not affect cAMP accumulation whereas eslicarbazepine acetate, surprisingly, is able to enhance cAMP accumulation. Since the transcription of ADCY8 (adenylyl cyclase isoform 8; AC8) has been found to be elevated in epileptic tissue from patients, we subsequently expressed AC8 in the HEK293 cells. In the AC8-expressing cells, oxcarbazepine was now able to attenuate whereas eslicarbazepine maintained its ability to increase cAMP accumulation. However, at all concentrations tested, licarbazepine demonstrated no effect on cAMP accumulation. Thus, we conclude that the effects exerted by carbamazepine and its derivatives on cAMP accumulation do not correlate with their clinical efficacy in epilepsy. However, this does not disqualify cAMP signaling per se as a potential disease-modifying drug target for epilepsy since more potent and selective inhibitors may be of therapeutic value.

The neuroprotective effect of curcumin against Cd-induced neurotoxicity and hippocampal neurogenesis promotion through CREB-BDNF signaling pathway.

Heavy metal neurotoxicity is one of the major challenges in today's era due to the large scale and widespread mechanisation of the production. However, the causative factors responsible for neurotoxicity are neither known nor do we have the availability of therapeutic approaches to deal with it. One of the major causative agents of neurotoxicity is a non-essential transition heavy metal, Cadmium (Cd), that reaches the central nervous system (CNS) through the nasal mucosa and olfactory pathway causing adverse structural and functional effects. In this study, we explored the neuroprotective efficacy of plant derived Curcumin which is reported to have pleiotropic biological activity including anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-carcinogenic and anti-angiogenic effects. Four different concentrations of curcumin (20, 40, 80 and 160 mg/kg of the body weight) were used to assess the behavioural, biochemical, hippocampal proteins (BDNF, CREB, DCX and Synapsin II) and histological changes in Swiss Albino mice that were pre-treated with Cd (2.5 mg/kg). The findings showed that Cd exposure led to the behavioural impairment through oxidative stress, reduction of hippocampal neurogenesis associated proteins, and degeneration of CA3 and cortical neurons. However, treatment of different curcumin concentrations had effectively restored the behavioural changes in Cd-exposed mice through regulation of oxidative stress and up-regulation of hippocampal proteins in a dose-dependent manner. Significantly, a dose of 160 mg/kg body weight was found to be glaringly effective. From this study, we infer that curcumin reverses the adverse effects of neurotoxicity induced by Cd and promotes neurogenesis.

Melatonin improves memory defects in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis by up-regulating cAMP-response element-binding protein and synapse-associated proteins in the prefrontal cortex.

Multiple sclerosis is a progressive autoimmune disorder of the myelin sheath and is the most common inflammatory disease of young adults. Up to 65% of multiple sclerosis patients have cognitive impairments such as memory loss and difficulty in understanding and maintaining attention and concentration. Many pharmacological interventions have been used to reverse motor impairments in multiple sclerosis patients; however, none of these drugs improve cognitive function. Melatonin can diffuse through the blood-brain barrier and has well-known antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties with almost no side effects; it is, therefore, a promising neuroprotective supplement for many neurological diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, ischemic stroke, and fibromyalgia. However, only some researches have assessed the effect of melatonin on cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. Here, we evaluated the effects of melatonin supplementation on memory defects induced by cuprizone in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. Cuprizone (400 mg/kg) and melatonin (80 mg/kg) were administered to SWR/J mice daily for 5 weeks. Open field, tail-flick, and novel object recognition behavioral tests were performed. Also, expression of cAMP-response element-binding protein, synaptophysin, and postsynaptic density protein 95 were measured in the prefrontal cortex. Melatonin significantly improved the memory defects induced by cuprizone toxicity by up-regulating cAMP-response element-binding protein and by increasing expression of the synapse-associated synaptophysin and postsynaptic density protein 95 genes in the prefrontal cortex. These results indicate that melatonin may provide protective effects against memory impairments associated with multiple sclerosis.

Manganese induced nervous injury by α-synuclein accumulation via ATP-sensitive K(+) channels and GABA receptors.

Manganese (Mn) is an environmental pollutant having a toxic effect on Parkinson's disease, with significant damage seen in the neurons of basal ganglia. Hence, Mn pollution is a public health concern. A Sprague-Dawley rat model was used to determine the damage to basal nuclei, and the effect of Mn intake was detected using the Morris water maze test and transmission electron microscopy. The SH-SY5Y cell line was exposed to Mn, and downstream signaling was assessed to determine the mechanism of toxicity. Mn exposure injured neurons, repressing GABAAR receptors and inducing GABABR receptors. The synergistic effect of the GABABR receptor and Kir6.1-SUR1 or Kir6.2-SUR1 was found to be one of the potential factors for the secretion of α-synuclein. The accumulation of α-synuclein regulated downstream factors calmodulin (CAM) cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), thereby impairing learning and memory. Other genes downstream of CREB, rather than the feedback regulation of CREB, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor might also be involved.

Inhibition of Histone Deacetylase Reinstates Hippocampus-Dependent Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity and Associative Memory in Sleep-Deprived Mice.

Sleep plays an important role in the establishment of long-term memory; as such, lack of sleep severely impacts domains of our health including cognitive function. Epigenetic mechanisms regulate gene transcription and protein synthesis, playing a critical role in the modulation of long-term synaptic plasticity and memory. Recent evidences indicate that transcriptional dysregulation as a result of sleep deprivation (SD) may contribute to deficits in plasticity and memory function. The histone deacetylase inhibitor suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA), also known as Vorinostat, a clinically approved drug for human use, has been shown to ameliorate cognitive deficits in several neurological disease models. To further explore the therapeutic effect of SAHA, we have examined its potential role in improving the SD-mediated impairments in long-term plasticity, associative plasticity, and associative memory. Here we show that SAHA preserves long-term plasticity, associative plasticity, and associative memory in SD hippocampus. Furthermore, we find that SAHA prevents SD-mediated epigenetic changes by upregulating histone acetylation, hence preserving the ERK-cAMP-responsive element-binding protein (CREB)/CREB-binding protein-brain-derived neurotrophic factor pathway in the hippocampus. These data demonstrate that modifying epigenetic mechanisms via SAHA can prevent or reverse impairments in long-term plasticity and memory that result from sleep loss. Thus, SAHA could be a potential therapeutic agent in improving SD-related memory deficits.

Isotalatizidine, a C19-diterpenoid alkaloid, attenuates chronic neuropathic pain through stimulating ERK/CREB signaling pathway-mediated microglial dynorphin A expression.

BACKGROUND: Isotalatizidine is a representative C19-diterpenoid alkaloid extracted from the lateral roots of Aconitum carmichaelii, which has been widely used to treat various diseases on account of its analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, and immunosuppressive properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the analgesic effect of isotalatizidine and its underlying mechanisms against neuropathic pain. METHODS: A chronic constrictive injury (CCI)-induced model of neuropathic pain was established in mice, and the limb withdrawal was evaluated by the Von Frey filament test following isotalatizidine or placebo administration. The signaling pathways in primary or immortalized microglia cells treated with isotalatizidine were analyzed by Western blotting and immunofluorescence. RESULTS: Intrathecal injection of isotalatizidine attenuated the CCI-induced mechanical allodynia in a dose-dependent manner. At the molecular level, isotalatizidine selectively increased the phosphorylation of p38 and ERK1/2, in addition to activating the transcription factor CREB and increasing dynorphin A production in cultured primary microglia. However, the downstream effects of isotalatizidine were abrogated by the selective ERK1/2 inhibitor U0126-EtOH or CREB inhibitor of KG-501, but not by the p38 inhibitor SB203580. The results also were confirmed in in vivo experiments. CONCLUSION: Taken together, isotalatizidine specifically activates the ERK1/2 pathway and subsequently CREB, which triggers dynorphin A release in the microglia, eventually leading to its anti-nociceptive action.

Cocaine-induced changes in CX3CL1 and inflammatory signaling pathways in the hippocampus: Association with IL1ß.

Cocaine induces neuroinflammatory response and interleukin-1 beta (IL1ß) is suggested a final effector for many cocaine-induced inflammatory signals. Recently, the chemokine fractalkine (CX3CL1) has been reported to regulate hippocampus-dependent neuroinflammation and synaptic plasticity via CX3C-receptor 1 (CX3CR1), but little is known about the impact of cocaine. This study is mainly focused on the characterization of CX3CL1, IL1ß and relevant inflammatory signal transduction pathways in the hippocampus in acute and repeated cocaine-treated male mice. Complementarily, the rewarding properties of cocaine were also assessed in Cx3cr1-knockout (KO) mice using a conditioned place preference (CPP). We observed significant increases in CX3CL1 and IL1ß concentrations after cocaine, although repeated cocaine produced an enhancement of CX3CL1 concentrations. CX3CL1 and IL1ß concentrations were positively correlated in acute (r = +0.61) and repeated (r = +0.82) cocaine-treated mice. Inflammatory signal transduction pathways were assessed. Whereas acute cocaine-treated mice showed transient increases in p-ERK1/2/ERK1/2 and p-p65/p65 NFκB ratios after cocaine injection, repeated cocaine-treated mice showed transient increases in p-ERK1/2/ERK1/2, p-p38/p38 MAPK, p-NFκB p65/NF-κB p65 and p-CREB/CREB ratios. Baseline p-p38/p38 MAPK and p-CREB/CREB ratios were downregulated in repeated cocaine-treated mice. Regarding the cocaine-induced CPP, Cx3cr1-KO mice showed a notably impaired extinction but no differences during acquisition and reinstatement. These results indicate that cocaine induces alterations in CX3CL1 concentrations, which are associated with IL1ß concentrations, and activates convergent inflammatory pathways in the hippocampus. Furthermore, the CX3CL1/CX3CR1 signaling could mediate the processes involved in the extinction of cocaine-induced CPP.