Deoxy sugars. General methods for carbohydrate deoxygenation and glycosidation.

Deoxy sugars represent an important class of carbohydrates, present in a large number of biomolecules involved in multiple biological processes. In various antibiotics, antimicrobials, and therapeutic agents the presence of deoxygenated units has been recognized as responsible for biological roles, such as adhesion or great affinity to receptors, or improved efficacy. The characterization of glycosidases and glycosyltranferases requires substrates, inhibitors and analogous compounds. Deoxygenated sugars are useful for carrying out specific studies for these enzymes. Deoxy sugars, analogs of natural substrates, may behave as substrates or inhibitors, or may not interact with the enzyme. They are also important for glycodiversification studies of bioactive natural products and glycobiological processes, which could contribute to discovering new therapeutic agents with greater efficacy by modification or replacement of sugar units. Deoxygenation of carbohydrates is, thus, of great interest and numerous efforts have been dedicated to the development of methods for the reduction of sugar hydroxyl groups. Given that carbohydrates are the most important renewable chemicals and are more oxidized than fossil raw materials, it is also important to have methods to selectively remove oxygen from certain atoms of these renewable raw materials. The different methods for removal of OH groups of carbohydrates and representative or recent applications of them are presented in this chapter. Glycosidic bonds in general, and 2-deoxy glycosidic linkages, are included. It is not the scope of this survey to cover all reports for each specific technique.

Automated, Multistep Continuous-Flow Synthesis of 2,6-Dideoxy and 3-Amino-2,3,6-trideoxy Monosaccharide Building Blocks.

An automated continuous flow system capable of producing protected deoxy-sugar donors from commercial material is described. Four 2,6-dideoxy and two 3-amino-2,3,6-trideoxy sugars with orthogonal protecting groups were synthesized in 11-32 % overall yields in 74-131.5 minutes of total reaction time. Several of the reactions were able to be concatenated into a continuous process, avoiding the need for chromatographic purification of intermediates. The modular nature of the experimental setup allowed for reaction streams to be split into different lines for the parallel synthesis of multiple donors. Further, the continuous flow processes were fully automated and described through the design of an open-source Python-controlled automation platform.

Copper mediated A3-coupling reaction for the preparation of enantioselective deoxy sugar based chiral propargylamines using bifunctional ligand l-proline.

An efficient three component coupling of aromatic aldehyde, deoxy sugar based alkyne (α-2-deoxy propargyl glycoside) and heterocyclic amine have been refluxed to synthesize stereoselective chiral propargylamines with good to excellent yield using only CuI catalyst along with bifunctional ligand l-proline. This method has proved to be applicable in wide range of substrates and found highly enantioselective with respect to earlier reported methods. In addition, l-proline was found as a chiral source which demonstrated that it could be developed as a highly enantioselective method for the construction of deoxy sugar based chiral propargylamines. The ligand l-proline was used for the first time in enantioselective A3-coupling reaction of α-2-deoxy propargyl glycosides involving substituted aromatic aldehyde and heterocyclic amines. Herein, we have synthesized 15 novel compounds based on A3-coupling reaction and structures of all the enantioselective compounds were characterised by TLC and NMR spectroscopy.

Sugar-Pirating as an Enabling Platform for the Synthesis of 4,6-Dideoxyhexoses.

An efficient divergent synthetic strategy that leverages the natural product spectinomycin to access uniquely functionalized monosaccharides is described. Stereoselective 2'- and 3'-reduction of key spectinomycin-derived intermediates enabled facile access to all eight possible 2,3-stereoisomers of 4,6-dideoxyhexoses as well as representative 3,4,6-trideoxysugars and 3,4,6-trideoxy-3-aminohexoses. In addition, the method was applied to the synthesis of two functionalized sugars commonly associated with macrolide antibiotics-the 3-O-alkyl-4,6-dideoxysugar d-chalcose and the 3-N-alkyl-3,4,6-trideoxysugar d-desosamine.

Automated solution-phase syntheses of alpha 1 → 2, 1 → 3 type rhamnans and rhamnan sulfate fragments.

Rhamnan and rhamnan sulfate are naturally occurring carbohydrates that have important biological functions and possible therapeutic applications, but studies are limited to the microheterogeneous mixtures from natural sources. This work reports the first synthesis of any sulfated rhamnan fragments and successful automation of the process with a recently developed automated solution-phase approach using N-iodosuccinimide/trimethylsilyl triflate (NIS/TMSOTf) promotor and levulinoyl ester deprotection conditions. The automated solution-phase activation/deprotection approach was initially able to create alpha 1 → 2, 1 → 3 type rhamnan di- and trisaccharide in moderate yields. Once these targets were achieved, a process to use SO3•pyridine complex in DMF for sulfation compatible with an automated solution-phase liquid handling system was developed and successfully applied to carbohydrate sulfation to create two rhamnan sulfate fragments with differing monosulfation patterns.

Programmable Synthesis of 2-Deoxyglycosides.

Control of glycoside bond stereochemistry is the central challenge in the synthesis of oligosaccharides. 2-Deoxyglycosides, which lack a C2 substituent to guide stereoselectivity, are among the most difficult classes of glycoside bond constructions. Here we present a method to synthesize 2-deoxysaccharides with specified glycoside bond stereochemistry using a nucleophilic carbohydrate residue and the synthetic equivalent of an alcohol electrophile. Because the configuration of the nucleophile can be precisely controlled, both α- and ß-glycosides can be synthesized from the same starting material in nearly all cases examined. Stereoselectivities in these reactions are often greater than 50:1 and yields typically exceed 70%. This strategy is amenable to the stereocontrolled syntheses of trisaccharide diastereomers, and a tetrasaccharide. This method may be extensible to other classes of carbohydrates.

Replacement of the L-iduronic acid unit of the anticoagulant pentasaccharide idraparinux by a 6-deoxy-L-talopyranose - Synthesis and conformational analysis.

One critical part of the synthesis of heparinoid anticoagulants is the creation of the L-iduronic acid building block featured with unique conformational plasticity which is crucial for the anticoagulant activity. Herein, we studied whether a much more easily synthesizable sugar, the 6-deoxy-L-talose, built in a heparinoid oligosaccharide, could show a similar conformational plasticity, thereby can be a potential substituent of the L-idose. Three pentasaccharides related to the synthetic anticoagulant pentasaccharide idraparinux were prepared, in which the L-iduronate was replaced by a 6-deoxy-L-talopyranoside unit. The talo-configured building block was formed by C4 epimerisation of the commercially available L-rhamnose with high efficacy at both the monosaccharide and the disaccharide level. The detailed conformational analysis of these new derivatives, differing only in their methylation pattern, was performed and the conformationally relevant NMR parameters, such as proton-proton coupling constants and interproton distances were compared to the corresponding ones measured in idraparinux. The lack of anticoagulant activity of these novel heparin analogues could be explained by the biologically not favorable 1C4 chair conformation of their 6-deoxy-L-talopyranoside residues.

Methods for 2-Deoxyglycoside Synthesis.

Deoxy-sugars often play a critical role in modulating the potency of many bioactive natural products. Accordingly, there has been sustained interest in methods for their synthesis over the past several decades. The focus of much of this work has been on developing new glycosylation reactions that permit the mild and selective construction of deoxyglycosides. This Review covers classical approaches to deoxyglycoside synthesis, as well as more recently developed chemistry that aims to control the selectivity of the reaction through rational design of the promoter. Where relevant, the application of this chemistry to natural product synthesis will also be described.

An Improved Approach to the Direct Construction of 2-Deoxy-ß-Linked Sugars: Applications to Oligosaccharide Synthesis.

A next-generation reagent-controlled approach for the synthesis of 2,6-dideoxy and 2,3,6-trideoxy sugar donors in good yield and high ß-selectivity is reported. The use of p-toluenesulfonyl chloride and potassium hexamethyldisilazide (KHMDS) greatly simplifies deoxy-sugar glycoside construction, and can be used for gram-scale glycosylation reactions. The development of this approach and its application to the construction of ß-linked deoxy-sugar oligosaccharides are described.

Synthesis of four (4"-, 2"-, 2'-, and 6-) monodeoxy analogs of the trisaccharide α-D-Glcp-(1 → 3)-α-D-Manp-(1 → 2)-α-D-ManpOMe recognized by Calreticulin/Calnexin.

Routes for efficient synthesis of four (4"-, 2"-, 2'-, and 6-) monodeoxy analogs of the trisaccharide α-D-Glcp-(1 → 3)-α-D-Manp-(1 → 2)-α-D-ManpOMe have been developed. For the introduction of the 2'- and 2"-deoxy motifs the most efficient way was to use a 1,2-di-bromo-mannosyl donor in silver triflate-promoted couplings to construct the α-glycosidic linkage followed by reduction of the 2-bromo-function to a 2-deoxy motif at the di- or trisaccharide level. In contrast, the 4"- and 6-deoxy functions were introduced already at the monosaccharide stage. The most challenging part of the syntheses was the stereoselective formation of the non-reducing end cis-α-D-glucosidic linkages. The established α-directing effect of a 3-O-acetyl group in glucosyl donors was explored but the magnitude of the effect was variable and dependent on donor/acceptor structure and nature of promoter and an optimization had to be made for each individual glycosylation.

Stereoselective synthesis of α-linked 2-deoxy glycosides enabled by visible-light-mediated reductive deiodination.

2-Deoxy sugars and their derivatives occur abundantly in many pharmaceutically important natural products. However, the construction of specific 2-deoxy-glycosidic bonds remains as a challenge. Herein, we report an efficient way to prepare 2-deoxy-α-glycosides by glycosylation of 2-iodo-glycosyl acetate and subsequent visible-light-mediated tin-free reductive deiodination. We have successfully applied the postglycosylational-deiodination strategy in the synthesis of more than 30 mono-, di-, tri-, tetra- and pentadeoxysaccharides with excellent stereoselectivity and efficiency. This method has also been applied to the synthesis of a 2-deoxy-tetrasaccharide containing four α-linkages.

Gram-scale synthesis of an armed colitose thioglycoside.

A concise gram-scale synthesis of protected colitose thioglycosides for use in bacterial carbohydrate antigen synthesis is described. The synthesis proceeds in six steps and 59-70% overall yield from commercially available l-fucose, making it the most efficient route reported to date. Key steps include regioselective installation of a thiocarbonate using catalytic dioctyltin dichloride (10 mol%) and a tris(trimethylsilyl)silane-mediated radical deoxygenation.

Intramolecular aglycon delivery enables the synthesis of 6-deoxy-ß-D-manno-heptosides as fragments of Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei capsular polysaccharide.

Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei are potential bioterrorism agents. They express the same capsular polysaccharide (CPS), a homopolymer featuring an unusual [→3)-2-O-acetyl-6-deoxy-ß-D-manno-heptopyranosyl-(1→] as the repeating unit. This CPS is known to be one of the main targets of the adaptive immune response in humans and therefore represents a crucial subunit candidate for vaccine development. Herein, the stereoselective synthesis of mono- and disaccharidic fragments of the B. pseudomallei and B. mallei CPS repeating unit is reported. The synthesis of 6-deoxy-ß-D-manno-heptosides was investigated using both inter- and intramolecular glycosylation strategies from thio-manno-heptose that was modified with 2-naphthylmethyl (NAP) at C2. We show here that NAP-mediated intramolecular aglycon delivery (IAD) represents a suitable approach for the stereocontrolled synthesis of 6-deoxy-ß-D-manno-heptosides without the need for rigid 4,6-O-cyclic protection of the sugar skeleton. The IAD strategy is highly modular, as it can be applied to structurally diverse acceptors with complete control of stereoselectivity. Problematic hydrogenation of the acetylated disaccharides was overcome by using a microfluidic continuous flow reactor.

Phosphodiesters serve as potentially tunable aglycones for fluoro sugar inactivators of retaining ß-glycosidases.

2-Deoxy-2-fluoroglycosides bearing dibenzyl phosphate and phosphonate aglycones were synthesised and tested as covalent inactivators of several retaining α- and ß-glycosidases. ß-d-Gluco-, -manno- and -galacto-configured benzyl-benzylphosphonate derivatives efficiently inactivated ß-gluco-, ß-manno- and ß-galactosidases, while α-gluco- and α-manno-configured phosphate and phosphonate derivatives served instead as slow substrates.

The asymmetric syntheses of methyl D-digitoxoside, L-oleandrose and L-cymarose from methyl sorbate, an achiral precursor.

The addition of 4 eq of chloral to osmundalactone (4S,5R)-4 gave quantitative formation of the hemiacetal derivative (4S,5R)-8, which was treated with methane sulfonic acid to afford the intramolecular Micheal addition product (+)-(3S,4S,5R)-9 possessing a 3,4-cis-dihydroxy-δ-lactone in 78% overall yield from (4S,5R)-4. The obtained (+)-(3S,4S,5R)-9 was subsequently converted to methyl D-digitoxoside (pyranoside) (12) in 13% overall yield and methyl D-digitoxoside (furanoside) (12) in 20% overall yield. The reaction of benzyl-osmundalactone (4R,5S)-3 and MeOH in the presence of Amberlyst A-26 as a basic catalyst gave 3,4-trans-δ-lactone (-)-(3S,4R,5S)-20 in 28% yield and 3,4-cis-δ-lactone (-)-(3R,4R,5S)-21 in 45% yield. Dibal-H reduction of (-)-(3S,4R,5S)-20 followed by catalytic hydrogenation gave L-oleandrose (6) in 86% overall yield, while Dibal-H reduction of (-)-(3R,4R,5S)-21 followed by catalytic hydrogenation provided L-cymarose (7) in 85% overall yield.

The synthesis of 2-deoxy-α-D-glycosides from D-glycals catalyzed by TMSI and PPh3.

2-Deoxyglycosides were synthesized in high α-selectivity by the direct addition of alcohols to D-glucal and D-galactal catalyzed by TMSI and PPh(3). The acid labile isopropylidene group is tolerated under this condition.

Preparation, structure and anticoagulant activity of a low molecular weight fraction produced by mild acid hydrolysis of sulfated rhamnan from Monostroma latissimum.

A low molecular weight fraction, designated LMWP, was prepared by mild acid hydrolysis of sulfated rhamnan from Monostroma latissimum and purified by anion-exchange and gel-permeation chromatography. Chemical and spectroscopic analyses showed that LMWP was mainly composed of rhamnose, and its molecular weight was about 33.6 kDa. The backbone of LMWP consists of 1,3-linked α-L-rhamnose units with partially sulfate groups at the C-2 position. Approximately 25% of 1,3-linked α-L-rhamnose units is substituted at C-2 by sulfated or non-sulfated 1,3-linked α-L-rhamnose and 1,2-linked α-L-rhamnose units. LMWP effectively prolonged clotting time as evaluated by the activated partial thromboplastin time assay and was a potent thrombin inhibitor mediated by heparin cofactor II. The investigation demonstrated that LMWP is a novel sulfated polysaccharide with anticoagulant activity.

De novo synthesis of L-colitose and L-rhodinose building blocks.

A divergent, practical, and efficient de novo synthesis of fully functionalized L-colitose (3,6-dideoxy-L-galactose), 2-epi-colitose (3,6-dideoxy-L-talose), and L-rhodinose (2,3,6-trideoxy-L-galactose) building blocks has been achieved using inexpensive, commercially available (S)-ethyl lactate as the starting material. The routes center around a diastereoselective Cram-chelated allylation that provides a common homoallylic alcohol intermediate. Oxidation of this common intermediate finally resulted in the synthesis of the three monosaccharide building blocks.

De novo synthesis of deoxy sugar via a Wharton rearrangement.

A highly divergent synthesis of α-fuco-, α-6-deoxy-allo-, α-6-deoxy-altro-pyranosides has been achieved. This route utilizes a Wharton rearrangement as part of a new post-glycosylation transformation strategy.

Radiopharmacological evaluation of 6-deoxy-6-[18F]fluoro-D-fructose as a radiotracer for PET imaging of GLUT5 in breast cancer.

INTRODUCTION: Several clinical studies have shown low or no expression of GLUT1 in breast cancer patients, which may account for the low clinical specificity and sensitivity of 2-deoxy-2-[(18)F]fluoro-D-glucose ([(18)F]FDG) used in positron emission tomography (PET). Therefore, it has been proposed that other tumor characteristics such as the high expression of GLUT2 and GLUT5 in many breast tumors could be used to develop alternative strategies to detect breast cancer. Here we have studied the in vitro and in vivo radiopharmacological profile of 6-deoxy-6-[(18)F]fluoro-D-fructose (6-[(18)F]FDF) as a potential PET radiotracer to image GLUT5 expression in breast cancers. METHODS: Uptake of 6-[(18)F]FDF was studied in murine EMT-6 and human MCF-7 breast cancer cells over 60 min and compared to [(18)F]FDG. Biodistribution of 6-[(18)F]FDF was determined in BALB/c mice. Tumor uptake was studied with dynamic small animal PET in EMT-6 tumor-bearing BALB/c mice and human xenograft MCF-7 tumor-bearing NIH-III mice in comparison to [(18)F]FDG. 6-[(18)F]FDF metabolism was investigated in mouse blood and urine. RESULTS: 6-[(18)F]FDF is taken up by EMT-6 and MCF-7 breast tumor cells independent of extracellular glucose levels but dependent on the extracellular concentration of fructose. After 60 min, 30±4% (n=9) and 12±1% (n=7) ID/mg protein 6-[(18)F]FDF was found in EMT-6 and MCF-7 cells, respectively. 6-deoxy-6-fluoro-d-fructose had a 10-fold higher potency than fructose to inhibit 6-[(18)F]FDF uptake into EMT-6 cells. Biodistribution in normal mice revealed radioactivity uptake in bone and brain. Radioactivity was accumulated in EMT-6 tumors reaching 3.65±0.30% ID/g (n=3) at 5 min post injection and decreasing to 1.75±0.03% ID/g (n=3) at 120 min post injection. Dynamic small animal PET showed significantly lower radioactivity uptake after 15 min post injection in MCF-7 tumors [standard uptake value (SUV)=0.76±0.05; n=3] compared to EMT-6 tumors (SUV=1.23±0.09; n=3). Interestingly, [(18)F]FDG uptake was significantly different in MCF-7 tumors (SUV(15 min) 0.74±0.12 to SUV(120 min) 0.80±0.15; n=3) versus EMT-6 tumors (SUV(15 min) 1.01±0.33 to SUV(120 min) 1.80±0.25; n=3). 6-[(18)F]FDF was shown to be a substrate for recombinant human ketohexokinase, and it was metabolized rapidly in vivo. CONCLUSION: Based on the GLUT5 specific transport and phosphorylation by ketohexokinase, 6-[(18)F]FDF may represent a novel radiotracer for PET imaging of GLUT5 and ketohexokinase-expressing tumors.