The impact of JNK on neuronal migration.

Incorrect placement of nerve cells during brain development leaves us at risk of diseases and conditions ranging from epilepsy and mental retardation to schizophrenia and dyslexia. The developing brain produces cells at an impressive rate, with up to 250,000 new cells generated every minute. These newborn cells migrate long distances in sequential waves to settle in the layers that make up the cerebral cortex. If a nerve cell moves too fast or too slow during this journey, it may not take the correct route or reach its appropriate destination. Much knowledge has been accumulated on molecular cues and transcriptional programs regulating cortical development. More recently, components of the c-Jun N-terminal signaling cascade have been brought to light as important intracellular regulators of nerve cell motility. In this chapter, we focus on this family of protein kinases, their upstream activators and downstream targets in the context of neuronal migration. We first present basic information on these molecules, much of which derives from studies outside the nervous system. We then highlight key findings on JNK signaling in brain where it phosphorylates brain-specific proteins that influence microtubule homeostasis. Finally, we summarize recent findings from transgenic mice on the regulation of neuronal migration by JNK cascade components and by JNK substrates.

Association analysis of two candidate phospholipase genes that map to the chromosome 15q15.1-15.3 region associated with reading disability.

Molecular genetic studies have suggested a reading disability (RD, dyslexia) susceptibility locus on chromosome 15q. We have previously mapped this locus by association to the region surrounding D15S994. Very little is known about the neurobiological processes involved in RD, and therefore selecting positional candidate genes for analysis based upon function is difficult. Nevertheless we were able to identify two functional candidates based upon existing hypotheses. Both were phospholipase genes, phospholipase C beta 2 (PLCB2) and phospholipase A2, group IVB (cytosolic; PLA2G4B). D15S944 is located within PLCB2 and is 1.6 Mb from PLA2G4B. We examined each gene for association using a mixed direct and indirect association approach, a case (n = 164)/control (n = 174) sample, and a partially overlapping sample of 178 RD parent-proband trios from South Wales and England. Mutation analysis revealed 14 sequence variants in PLCB2 and 33 variants in PLA2G4B. All non-synonymous SNPs were genotyped as were SNPs across each gene with maximum distance between SNPs of 6 kb. Case-control analyses revealed modest evidence (0.01 < P < 0.05) for association between a single variant in PLCB2 and two variants in PLA2G4B. However, association was not confirmed in the family based sample. As the latter sample has previously generated replicated significant evidence for association between RD and markers/haplotypes surrounding D15S944, it should have sufficient power to detect association to variants in susceptibility gene itself. We conclude that neither gene accounts for the association signal we previously observed. As these are the only clear cut functional candidate genes in the region, identification of the putative susceptibility locus for RD on 15q will require more methodical non-hypothesis driven positional cloning approaches.

Increased levels of cytosolic phospholipase A2 in dyslexics.

Research findings are increasingly reporting evidence of physiological abnormalities in dyslexia and sites for dyslexia have been identified on three chromosomes. It has been suggested that genetic inheritance may cause phospholipid abnormalities in dyslexia somewhat similar to those found in schizophrenia. A key enzyme in phospholipid metabolism, Type IV, or cytosolic, phospholipase A2 (cPLA2), releases arachidonic acid (AA), a 20-carbon fatty acid, which is the major source of production of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. An entirely new assay, which for the first time has enabled determination of the amount of the enzyme rather than its activity, was used to measure cPLA2 in dyslexic-type adults and controls and the two groups were found to differ significantly, the dyslexic-types having more of the enzyme. A report elsewhere of schizophrenics having even greater amounts of the enzyme suggests that dyslexia may be on a continuum with schizophrenia, as may be other neurodevelopmental disorders - which have also been described as phospholipid spectrum disorders.

Protein content and monoamine oxidase activity in platelets.

Platelets of healthy subjects and patients suffering from various disorders were assayed for their monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity and protein content. The latter tended to be lower with increasing platelet count. A linear correlation with negative slope between count and protein content was found to exist in platelets obtained from schizophrenic, parkinsonian, and (specific development) dyslexia patients. MAO activities appeared to vary significantly with respect to age and sex. In schizophrenic patients, a significant depression of MAO activity occurred which was more marked in chronic than in acute cases. Even larger activity reductions were seen in platelets of insulin-dependent diabetics while the MAO was enhanced in male dyslexic boys. When MAO activity was assessed with different substrates and methods, the results correlated well with each other. Small, but consistent discrepancies, however, arose in the schizophrenia data when compared with the control values.