Posterior Interosseous Neuropathy with Peripheral Dystonia: A Case Report.

Background: Posterior interosseous neuropathy is an uncommon cause of peripheral dystonia. Case Report: A 62-year-old man awakened and noticed right finger drop. A neurological examination revealed posterior interosseous neuropathy with dystonia-like finger movements. Abnormal movements were predominantly observed in the right thumb, ring finger, and little finger. Within 2 weeks, the muscle weakness in the right fingers had completely improved. However, a brief abnormal posture of the right thumb was persistent. Discussion: The residual abnormal posture of the right thumb may reflect pre-existing motor control abnormalities, which may have contributed to the onset of posterior interosseous neuropathy-associated peripheral dystonia.

CHD8-related disorders redefined: an expanding spectrum of dystonic phenotypes.

BACKGROUND: Heterozygous loss-of-function variants in CHD8 have been associated with a syndromic neurodevelopmental-disease spectrum, collectively referred to as CHD8-related neurodevelopmental disorders. Several different clinical manifestations, affecting neurodevelopmental and systemic domains, have been described, presenting with highly variable expressivity. Some expressions are well established and comprise autism spectrum disorders, psychomotor delay with cognitive impairment, postnatal overgrowth with macrocephaly, structural brain abnormalities, gastrointestinal disturbances, and behavioral and sleep-pattern problems. However, the complete phenotypic spectrum of CHD8-related disorders is still undefined. In 2021, our group described two singular female patients with CHD8-related neurodevelopmental disorder and striking dystonic manifestations, prompting the suggestion that dystonia should be considered a possible component of this condition. CASE SERIES PRESENTATION: We describe three additional unrelated female individuals, each carrying a different CHD8 frameshift variant and whose clinical presentations were primarily characterized by young-onset dystonia. Their dystonic manifestations were remarkably heterogeneous and ranged from focal, exercise-dependent, apparently isolated forms to generalized permanent phenotypes accompanied by spasticity and tremor. Neurocognitive impairment and autistic behaviors, typical of CHD8-related disorders, were virtually absent or at the mild end of the spectrum. CONCLUSIONS: This work validates our previous observation that dystonia is part of the phenotypic spectrum of CHD8-related neurodevelopmental disorders with potential female preponderance, raising new challenges and opportunities in the diagnosis and management of this condition. It also highlights the importance of in-depth neurologic phenotyping of patients carrying variants associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, as the connection between neurodevelopmental and movement disorders is proving closer than previously appreciated.

Essential Tremor and Essential Tremor Plus Are Essentially Similar Electrophysiologically.

BACKGROUND: The merits of classifying the heterogeneous group of essential tremors into essential tremor (ET) and essential tremor plus (ETP) are debated. OBJECTIVES: We studied the electrophysiological and spiral characteristics of tremor in ET and ETP. METHODS: We reviewed standardized videos from a tremor database and clinically classified patients into ET, ETP, or dystonic tremor (DT). The following variables were derived from combined tri-axial accelerometry-surface electromyography (EMG)-peak frequency, total power, peak power, full width half maximum, tremor stability index and EMG-coherence. We analyzed hand-drawn spirals to derive mean deviation, tremor variability, inter-, and intra-loop widths. We compared these variables among the groups. RESULTS: We recruited 72 participants (81.9% male) with mean age 47.7 ± 16.1 years and Fahn-Tolosa-Marin Tremor Rating Scale total score 31.1 ± 14.1. Patients with ET were younger (P = 0.014) and had less severe tremor (P = 0.020) compared to ETP and DT. In ETP group, 48.6% had subtle dystonia. Peak frequency was greater in ETP (7.3 ± 0.3 Hz) compared to DT (6.1 ± 0.4 Hz; P = 0.024). Peak power was greater in ETP and DT for postural tremor. Rest tremor was recordable on accelerometry in 26.7% of ET. Other variables were similar among the groups. CONCLUSION: Electrophysiological evaluation revealed postural tremor of frequency 6 to 7 Hz in ET, ETP, and DT with subtle differences more severe tremor in ETP and DT, and higher frequency in ETP compared to DT. Our findings suggest a similar tremor oscillator in these conditions, supporting the view that these entities are part of a spectrum of tremor disorders, rather than distinct etiological entities.

Could motor blocks be a therapeutic option for treatment-resistant functional dystonia? A case series of three patients.

The diagnosis of functional dystonia is challenging because it is difficult to distinguish functional dystonia from other types of dystonia. After diagnostic explanation, multidisciplinary care is recommended, but some patients are resistant to treatments. We used motor blocks in three patients with severe resistant functional dystonia of the upper limbs to test (i) whether joint contracture was present and (ii) whether motor blocks have a therapeutic effect on functional dystonia. Patient 1 showed a good and sustained therapeutic response, Patient 2 experienced a resolution of the dystonic posture that lasted for 10 days, and Patient 3 experienced no effect. Motor blocks may be a useful therapeutic option in chronic treatment-resistant functional dystonia. The treatment effect might be achieved through the experience of normal positioning and functioning of the limb.

Dystonia and Parkinsonism in COA7-related disorders: expanding the phenotypic spectrum.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Biallelic mutations in the COA7 gene have been associated with spinocerebellar ataxia with axonal neuropathy type 3 (SCAN3), and a notable clinical diversity has been observed. We aim to identify the genetic and phenotypic spectrum of COA7-related disorders. METHODS: We conducted comprehensive genetic analyses on the COA7 gene within a large group of Japanese patients clinically diagnosed with inherited peripheral neuropathy or cerebellar ataxia. RESULTS: In addition to our original report, which involved four patients until 2018, we identified biallelic variants of the COA7 gene in another three unrelated patients, and the variants were c.17A > G (p.D6G), c.115C > T (p.R39W), and c.449G > A (p.C150Y; novel). Patient 1 presented with an infantile-onset generalized dystonia without cerebellar ataxia. Despite experiencing an initial transient positive response to levodopa and deep brain stimulation, he became bedridden by the age of 19. Patient 2 presented with cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy, as well as parkinsonism, and showed a slight improvement upon levodopa administration. Dopamine transporter SPECT showed decreased uptake in the bilateral putamen in both patients. Patient 3 exhibited severe muscle weakness, respiratory failure, and feeding difficulties. A haplotype analysis of the mutation hotspot in Japan, c.17A > G (p.D6G), uncovered a common haplotype block. CONCLUSION: COA7-related disorders typically encompass a spectrum of conditions characterized by a variety of major (cerebellar ataxia and axonal polyneuropathy) and minor (leukoencephalopathy, dystonia, and parkinsonism) symptoms, but may also display a dystonia-predominant phenotype. We propose that COA7 should be considered as a new causative gene for infancy-onset generalized dystonia, and COA7 gene screening is recommended for patients with unexplained dysfunctions of the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Multiple motor disorders in cerebral palsy.

AIM: To characterize motor disorders in children and young people with cerebral palsy (CP). METHOD: This was a cross-sectional study of 582 children and young people with CP (mean age 9 years 7 months; range 11 months-19 years 9 months; standard deviation 4 years 11 months; 340 males) attending a rehabilitation clinic at a specialized children's hospital (May 2018-March 2020). Data on motor disorders, topography, functional classifications, and non-motor features, such as epilepsy, intellectual disability, and sensory impairments, were collected using the Australian Cerebral Palsy Register CP Description Form. RESULTS: Fifty-five per cent (n = 321) of children and young people with CP presented with multiple motor disorders, often affecting the same limb(s). The most common motor disorders were spasticity and dystonia (50%), spasticity only (36%), and dystonia only (6%), but 18 different combinations were identified, including choreoathetosis, ataxia, and generalized hypotonia with increased reflexes. Children with spasticity only had less severe functional deficits (p < 0.001) and lower rates of associated intellectual disability (p < 0.01) and epilepsy (p < 0.001) than those with both spasticity and dystonia. INTERPRETATION: Multiple motor disorders in children and young people with CP are common and associated with more severe functional impairment. Accurate assessment of motor disorders is essential to guide prognosis and ensure personalized evidence-based interventions. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: More than half of children and young people with cerebral palsy presented with multiple motor disorders. Dystonia was identified in 60% of study participants. Dystonia was associated with more severe functional impairments and rates of non-motor features.

The first Vietnamese patient who presented late onset of pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration diagnosed by whole exome sequencing: A case report.

RATIONALE: Pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration (PKAN), also called Hallervorden-Spatz syndrome, is a rare autosomal recessive disease associated with brain iron accumulation and characterized by progressive dystonia, dementia, and dysarthria symptoms. PKAN, caused by a defective pantothenate kinase 2 (PANK2) gene, is the most common neurodegeneration with a brain iron accumulation (NBIA) group. The "eye of the tiger" sign in the magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated a bilateral hyperintense signal in the basal ganglia region on T2-weighted images, which is a characteristic feature of the diagnosis. PKAN is classified into 2 main types. The early-onset type (classic type) with rapid progression is characterized by symptoms of gait impairment and dystonia leading to loss of ambulation in early childhood. In the later-onset type (atypical type), slow progression usually takes place in the second decade of life with symptoms of neurodegeneration, dystonia, dysarthria, rigidity, choreoathetosis, and motor impairment. Until now, PKAN patients have only been reported in a few countries in Asia such as China, Korea, India, Iran, Taiwan, and Thailand. PATIENT CONCERNS: Here we report the first case of PKAN in Vietnam. The patient had a late onset but the disease progresses rapidly with symptoms of dyskinesia, dysphagia, and difficulty speaking. DIAGNOSES: Pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration. INTERVENTIONS: Whole exome sequencing was performed to identify heterozygous mutations in the PANK2 gene (NM_153638.4) (c.856C>T, p.Arg286Cys and c.1351C>T, p.Arg451Ter) that has been confirmed as the cause of the disease. OUTCOMES: In this study, the first Vietnamese patient with late-onset PKAN was diagnosed by the whole exome sequencing method. LESSONS: The patient's case marks an important milestone for the first case in Vietnam. The results of the study will provide a scientific basis for clinicians in the diagnosis and genetic counseling of patients.

ATP1A3 related disease manifesting as rapid onset dystonia-parkinsonism with prominent myoclonus and exaggerated startle.

We report ATP1A3-associated rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism with an atypical presentation including myoclonus and exaggerated startle in four patients. Their prominence over parkinsonism prompted consideration of a syndromic diagnosis of myoclonus dystonia. ATP1α3 dysfunction in GABAergic neurons could explain these examination findings. The spectrum of ATP1A3-associated movement disorders includes myoclonus-dystonia.

Phenotypic Heterogeneity in Patients with Mutations in the Mitochondrial Complex I Assembly Gene NDUFAF5.

BACKGROUND: Rare mutations in NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase complex assembly factor 5 (NDUFAF5) are linked to Leigh syndrome. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to describe clinical characteristics and functional findings in a patient cohort with NDUFAF5 mutations. METHODS: Patients with biallelic NDUFAF5 mutations were recruited from multi-centers in Taiwan. Clinical, laboratory, radiological, and follow-up features were recorded and mitochondrial assays were performed in patients' skin fibroblasts. RESULTS: Nine patients from seven unrelated pedigrees were enrolled, eight homozygous for c.836 T > G (p.Met279Arg) in NDUFAF5 and one compound heterozygous for p.Met279Arg. Onset age had a bimodal distribution. The early-onset group (age <3 years) presented with psychomotor delay, seizure, respiratory failure, and hyponatremia. The late-onset group (age ≥5 years) presented with normal development, but slowly progressive dystonia. Combing 25 previously described patients, the p.Met279Arg variant was exclusively identified in Chinese ancestry. Compared with other groups, patients with late-onset homozygous p.Met279Arg were older at onset (P = 0.008), had less developmental delay (P = 0.01), less hyponatremia (P = 0.01), and better prognosis with preserved ambulatory function into early adulthood (P = 0.01). Bilateral basal ganglia necrosis was a common radiological feature, but brainstem and spinal cord involvement was more common with early-onset patients (P = 0.02). A modifier gene analysis showed higher concomitant mutation burden in early-versus late-onset p.Met279Arg homozygous cases (P = 0.04), consistent with more impaired mitochondrial function in fibroblasts from an early-onset case than a late-onset patient. CONCLUSIONS: The p.Met279Arg variant is a common mutation in our population with phenotypic heterogeneity and divergent prognosis based on age at onset. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Functional tics: Expanding the phenotypes of functional movement disorders?

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Until the outbreak reported during the COVID-19 pandemic, functional tics were considered to be a relatively rare clinical phenotype, as opposed to other functional movement disorders such as functional tremor and dystonia. To better characterize this phenotype, we compared the demographic and clinical characteristics of patients who developed functional tics during the pandemic and those of patients with other functional movement disorders. METHODS: Data from 110 patients were collected at the same neuropsychiatry centre: 66 consecutive patients who developed functional tics without other functional motor symptoms or neurodevelopmental tics and 44 patients with a mix of functional dystonia, tremor, gait, and myoclonus. RESULTS: Both groups were characterized by female sex preponderance (70%-80%) and (sub)acute onset of functional symptoms (~80%). However, patients with functional tics had a significantly earlier age at onset of functional symptoms (21 vs. 39 years). Exposure to relevant social media content was reported by almost half of the patients with functional tics, but by none of the patients with other functional movement disorders. Comorbidity profiles were similar, with relatively high rates of anxiety/affective symptoms and other functional neurological symptoms (nonepileptic attacks). CONCLUSIONS: Patients who developed functional tics during the pandemic represent a phenotypic variant of the wider group of patients with functional movement disorders, associated with younger age at onset and influenced by pandemic-related factors, including increased exposure to specific social media content. Diagnostic protocols and treatment interventions should be tailored to address the specific features of this newly defined phenotype.

The changing face of reported status dystonicus - A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Status Dystonicus (SD) represents the most severe end of the spectrum of dystonia. We aimed to explore whether reported features of cases of SD have changed over time. METHODS: A systematic review of cases of SD reported from 2017 to 2023 and comparison of features to data extracted from 2 previous literature reviews (epochs 2012-2017 and pre-2012). RESULTS: From 53 papers, a total 206 SD episodes in 168 patients were identified from 2017 to 2023. Combining data from all 3 epochs, a total of 339 SD episodes were reported from 277 patients. SD episodes occurred mostly in children, with a trigger identified in 63.4% of episodes, most commonly infection/inflammation. Most reported underlying aetiologies were genetic (e.g. 49.5% between 2017 and 2023), including new associated aetiologies in each epoch. Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)-related SD increased over time. Neurosurgical interventions were more frequently reported in later epochs. Across the epochs, return to or improvement post SD episode, compared to baseline was reported above 70%. Reported mortality was 4.9% most recently, compared to 11.4% and 7.9%, previously. CONCLUSIONS: SD episodes reported have more than doubled in the last 5 years. Reports of medication change-induced SD have become less frequent, whilst episodes of DBS-related SD have become more frequent. More dystonia aetiologies, including novel aetiologies have been reported in recent cohorts, reflecting advances in genetic diagnosis. Neurosurgical interventions are increasingly reported in the management of SD episodes, including novel use of intraventricular baclofen. Overall outcomes from SD remain largely unchanged over time. No prospective epidemiological studies of SD were identified.

Risk of neurodegenerative diseases in patients with sleep disorders: A nationwide population-based case-control study.

OBJECTIVE: Our study aimed to explore the associative relationship between neurodegenerative diseases and sleep disorders. PATIENTS: This 15-year retrospective longitudinal nationwide population-based matched case-control study used data extracted from the National Health Insurance Research Database. We evaluated 25,589 patients diagnosed with neurodegenerative diseases between 2000 and 2015 and a matched control of 102,356 patients without neurodegenerative diseases. RESULTS: Sleep disorders were an independent risk factor for the development of neurodegenerative diseases (adjusted odds ratio (OR): 1.794, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.235-2.268, P < 0.001), with a positive dose-effect relationship (adjusted OR (95% CI): <1 year: 1.638 (1.093-2.872), P < 0.001; 1-5 years: 1.897 (1.260-3.135), P < 0.001; >5 years: 2.381 (1.467-3.681), P < 0.001. Moreover, patients with sleep disorder and comorbid depression had a significantly higher risk of neurodegenerative disorders (adjusted OR: 5.874). Subgroup analysis showed that insomnia was associated with Alzheimer's disease, Pick's disease and essential tremor (adjusted OR (95% CI): 1.555 (1.069-1.965), 1.934 (1.331-2.445) and 2.089 (1.439-2.648), respectively). Obstructive sleep apnea was associated with Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, and primary dystonia (adjusted OR (95% CI): 1.801 (1.239-2.275), 5.523 (3.802-6.977), and 4.892 (3.365-6.178), respectively). Other specific sleep disorders were associated with Pick's disease, Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, and primary dystonia (adjusted OR (95% CI): 8.901 (6.101-11.010), 1.549 (1.075-1.986), 2.791 (1.924-3.531), and 9.114 (6.283-10.506), respectively). CONCLUSION: Sleep disorders are associated with the subsequent development of neurodegenerative disorders. Moreover, sleep disorder patients with comorbid depression have a higher risk of neurodegenerative diseases.

A Network Imaging Biomarker of X-Linked Dystonia-Parkinsonism.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to characterize a metabolic brain network associated with X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism (XDP). METHODS: Thirty right-handed Filipino men with XDP (age = 44.4 ± 8.5 years) and 30 XDP-causing mutation negative healthy men from the same population (age = 37.4 ± 10.5 years) underwent [18 F]-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Scans were analyzed using spatial covariance mapping to identify a significant XDP-related metabolic pattern (XDPRP). Patients were rated clinically at the time of imaging according to the XDP-Movement Disorder Society of the Philippines (MDSP) scale. RESULTS: We identified a significant XDPRP topography from 15 randomly selected subjects with XDP and 15 control subjects. This pattern was characterized by bilateral metabolic reductions in caudate/putamen, frontal operculum, and cingulate cortex, with relative increases in the bilateral somatosensory cortex and cerebellar vermis. Age-corrected expression of XDPRP was significantly elevated (p < 0.0001) in XDP compared to controls in the derivation set and in the remaining 15 patients (testing set). We validated the XDPRP topography by identifying a similar pattern in the original testing set (r = 0.90, p < 0.0001; voxel-wise correlation between both patterns). Significant correlations between XDPRP expression and clinical ratings for parkinsonism-but not dystonia-were observed in both XDP groups. Further network analysis revealed abnormalities of information transfer through the XDPRP space, with loss of normal connectivity and gain of abnormal functional connections linking network nodes with outside brain regions. INTERPRETATION: XDP is associated with a characteristic metabolic network associated with abnormal functional connectivity among the basal ganglia, thalamus, motor regions, and cerebellum. Clinical signs may relate to faulty information transfer through the network to outside brain regions. ANN NEUROL 2023;94:684-695.

Oculomotor abnormalities indicate early executive dysfunction in prodromal X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism (XDP).

BACKGROUND: X-Linked dystonia-parkinsonism (XDP) is a movement disorder characterized by the presence of both dystonia and parkinsonism with one or the other more prominent in the initial stages and later on manifesting with more parkinsonian features towards the latter part of the disease. XDP patients show oculomotor abnormalities indicating prefrontal and striatal impairment. This study investigated oculomotor behavior in non-manifesting mutation carriers (NMC). We hypothesized that oculomotor disorders occur before the appearance of dystonic or parkinsonian signs. This could help to functionally identify brain regions already affected in the prodromal stage of the disease. METHODS: Twenty XDP patients, 13 NMC, and 28 healthy controls (HC) performed different oculomotor tasks typically affected in patients with parkinsonian signs. RESULTS: The error rate for two types of volitional saccades, i.e., anti-saccades and memory-guided saccades, was increased not only in XDP patients but also in NMC compared to HC. However, the increase in error rates of both saccade types were highly correlated in XDP patients only. Hypometria of reflexive saccades was only found in XDP patients. Initial acceleration and maintenance velocity of smooth pursuit eye movements were only impaired in XDP patients. CONCLUSIONS: Despite being asymptomatic, NMC already showed some oculomotor deficits reflecting fronto-striatal impairments, typically found in XDP patients. However, NMC did not show saccade hypometria and impaired smooth pursuit as seen in advanced Parkinson's disease and XDP, suggesting oculomotor state rather than trait signs in these mutation carriers. Neurodegeneration may commence in the striatum and prefrontal cortex, specifically the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

Perampanel as a novel treatment for subcortical myoclonus in myoclonus-dystonia syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Myoclonus-dystonia (MD) is a syndrome characterized by subcortical myoclonus and milder dystonia. The main causative gene is the epsilon sarcoglycan gene (SGCE), but other genes may be involved. Response to medications is variable, with poor tolerability limiting their use. CASE PRESENTATION: We present the case of a patient with severe myoclonic jerks and mild dystonia since childhood. At first neurological visit at the age of 46 years old, she presented brief myoclonic jerks predominating in the upper limbs and neck, mild at rest and elicited by action, posture and tactile stimulus. Myoclonus was accompanied by mild neck and right arm dystonia. Neurophysiological tests suggested subcortical origin of myoclonus, brain MRI was unremarkable. Myoclonus-dystonia was diagnosed, and genetic testing identified a novel mutation in SGCE gene (c.907delC) in heterozygosis. Over time she assumed a large variety of anti-epileptics without beneficial effect on myoclonus and low tolerability. Add-on treatment with Perampanel was started, with a beneficial effect. No adverse events were reported. Perampanel is the first selective non-competitive AMPA receptor antagonist approved in add-on for focal and generalized tonic-clonic seizures. To our knowledge, this is the first trial of Perampanel in MD. CONCLUSIONS: We presented the case of a patient with MD due to SGCE mutation who was treated with Perampanel with beneficial effects. We propose Perampanel as a novel treatment for myoclonus in MD.

Development and Validation of the Dystonia-Pain Classification System: A Multicenter Study.

BACKGROUND: Dystonia is associated with disabling nonmotor symptoms like chronic pain (CP), which is prevalent in dystonia and significantly impacts the quality of life (QoL). There is no validated tool for assessing CP in dystonia, which substantially hampers pain management. OBJECTIVE: The aim was to develop a CP classification and scoring system for dystonia. METHODS: A multidisciplinary group was established to develop the Dystonia-Pain Classification System (Dystonia-PCS). The classification of CP as related or unrelated to dystonia was followed by the assessment of pain severity score, encompassing pain intensity, frequency, and impact on daily living. Then, consecutive patients with inherited/idiopathic dystonia of different spatial distribution were recruited in a cross-sectional multicenter validation study. Dystonia-PCS was compared to validated pain, mood, QoL, and dystonia scales (Brief Pain Inventory, Douleur Neuropathique-4 questionnaire, European QoL-5 Dimensions-3 Level Version, and Burke-Fahn-Marsden Dystonia Rating Scale). RESULTS: CP was present in 81 of 123 recruited patients, being directly related to dystonia in 82.7%, aggravated by dystonia in 8.8%, and nonrelated to dystonia in 7.5%. Dystonia-PCS had excellent intra-rater (Intraclass Correlation Coefficient - ICC: 0.941) and inter-rater (ICC: 0.867) reliability. In addition, pain severity score correlated with European QoL-5 Dimensions-3 Level Version's pain subscore (r = 0.635, P < 0.001) and the Brief Pain Inventory's severity and interference scores (r = 0.553, P < 0.001 and r = 0.609, P < 0.001, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Dystonia-PCS is a reliable tool to categorize and quantify CP impact in dystonia and will help improve clinical trial design and management of CP in patients affected by this disorder. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Peripherally-induced Movement Disorders: An Update.

Background: Peripherally-induced movement disorders (PIMD) should be considered when involuntary or abnormal movements emerge shortly after an injury to a body part. A close topographic and temporal association between peripheral injury and onset of the movement disorders is crucial to diagnosing PIMD. PIMD is under-recognized and often misdiagnosed as functional movement disorder, although both may co-exist. Given the considerable diagnostic, therapeutic, and psychosocial-legal challenges associated with PIMD, it is crucial to update the clinical and scientific information about this important movement disorder. Methods: A comprehensive PubMed search through a broad range of keywords and combinations was performed in February 2023 to identify relevant articles for this narrative review. Results: The spectrum of the phenomenology of PIMD is broad and it encompasses both hyperkinetic and hypokinetic movements. Hemifacial spasm is probably the most common PIMD. Others include dystonia, tremor, parkinsonism, myoclonus, painful leg moving toe syndrome, tics, polyminimyoclonus, and amputation stump dyskinesia. We also highlight conditions such as neuropathic tremor, pseudoathetosis, and MYBPC1-associated myogenic tremor as examples of PIMD. Discussion: There is considerable heterogeneity among PIMD in terms of severity and nature of injury, natural course, association with pain, and response to treatment. As some patients may have co-existing functional movement disorder, neurologists should be able to differentiate the two disorders. While the exact pathophysiology remains elusive, aberrant central sensitization after peripheral stimuli and maladaptive plasticity in the sensorimotor cortex, on a background of genetic (two-hit hypothesis) or other predisposition, seem to play a role in the pathogenesis of PIMD.

Long-term outcome of patients with neurological form of Wilson's disease compliant to the de-coppering treatment.

BACKGROUND: A substantial proportion of Wilson's disease (WD) patients exhibit residual neurological symptoms. Data on the prognostic value of initial clinical features and treatment choices in WD patients compliant to the therapy is relatively sparse. AIM: The aim of the present study was to identify predictors of the long-term outcome of patients with WD with good treatment adherence. METHODS: Forty patients with neurological form of WD were evaluated before the de-coppering treatment initiation (based on the medical records) and after mean 15.25 ± 11.24 years of the stable treatment. Severity of neurological symptoms were assessed with a tier two of Global Assessment Scale (GAS) for Wilson's Disease. RESULTS: The most frequent symptoms prior to treatment initiation were dysarthria (90%), tremor (90%), clumsiness (67.5%), depression (67.5%), and gait disturbance (62.5%). Significant decrease in the frequency of dysarthria, clumsiness, tremor, gait disturbance, postural instability and an improvement in school/work performance were observed after the long-term treatment, while frequency of dysphagia, drooling, bradykinesia and rigidity, dystonic and choreatic features did not change. Overall symptom severity decreased over time. Presence of dystonia before treatment initiation was the only identified predictor of worse residual GAS score. Greater severity of residual dystonia was associated with female gender and longer disease duration. CONCLUSION: Although patients with neurological form of WD compliant to de-coppering treatment had favorable disease outcome, a significant burden of residual neurological symptoms was observed after the long-term follow-up. Dystonia at disease onset was the only identified predictor of the worse long-term outcome.