Probing the human brain with stimulating electrodes: the story of Roberts Bartholow's (1874) experiment on Mary Rafferty.

Roberts Bartholow's 1874 experiment on Mary Rafferty is widely cited as the first demonstration, by direct application of stimulating electrodes, of the motor excitability of the human cerebral cortex. The many accounts of the experiment, however, leave certain questions and details unexamined or unresolved, especially about Bartholow's goals, the nature and quality of the evidence, and the experiment's role in the history of theory and research on localisation of function. In this article, we try to fill these gaps and to tell the full story. We describe Bartholow's career up to 1874, review the theoretical and empirical background for the experiment, and present Bartholow's own account of the experiment as well as those of his supporters and critics. We then present our own analysis, assess the experiment's influence on contemporaneous scientific opinion about cortical excitability, and trace its citation record into our own time. We also review and assess ethical criticisms of Bartholow and their effects on his career, and we close by discussing the role we think the experiment deserves to play in the history of theory and research on cortical excitability.

Sodium hypochlorite: history, properties, electrochemical production.

This paper analyses the evolution of hypochlorite as strong disinfectant. The electrochemical production of hypochloric acid or sodium hypochlorite represents the best method to obtain a pure product. To have a good production (as quality and quantity), it is necessary to optimize the electrochemical process with the optimal of electrocatalytic electrodes (cathode and anode) the gap between electrodes, the temperature of electrochemical cell. It is very important for the product stability during a long period, avoid the presence of heavy metal ions and particulate as impurity-like carbon micro-powders in suspension. It is necessary a rigorous control of the pH of final product to have the optimal disinfection power of hypochlorite solution. The most stable sodium hypochlorite solutions are those that show the following characteristics: (1) low concentration of hypochlorite; (2) pH -> 11.5 and <13; (3) absence of graphite particulate and metallic ions; (4) storage at controlled temperature <30 degrees C. Packing in containers impermeable to light.

[Electrolysis in rhinolaryngology--one of justifiably forgotten method of XIX-century therapy]. / Elektroliza w rynolaryngologii--jedna ze slusznie zapomnianych metod dziewietnastowiecznej terapii.

The essence of electrolysis, the physico-chemical changes in this process are described first of all. The constructions of electrolytic apparatuses and needles is presented in more detail. The achievements of such physicians as Julius Althaus and Victor von Bruns are pointed out. The role of such rhinolaryngologists as Friedrich E. Voltolini, Arthur Kuttner, Ricardo Botey, Kafemann, Antoni Jurasz sen. and Teodor Heryng in therapeutical process of electrolysis is presented with full particulars. The electrolysis was used especially in hypertrophic rhinitis, deformations of nasal septum, nasal scleroma, tumores of naso-pharyngeal cavity, hypertrophy of palatine tonsills, laryngeal polypes, laryngeal tuberculosis and laryngeal stenosis. Electrolysis was a prolonged and rather painful method and is justifiably forgotten method.

[Methods of endoluminal treatment of urethral stenosis up to the end of the 19th Century]. / Métodos de tratamiento endoluminal de la estenosis de uretra hasta finales del Siglo XIX.

Ever since Hippocrates, physicians have managed patients that suffered from urethral stricture. To that end, genius and imagination put to the service of scientific knowledge, have produced numerous apparatus, instruments and methods of a varied nature, with the aim of allowing urine passage through the strictured urethra. Illustrious names such as Andrés Laguna or Francisco Díaz, and other not so well known. Spanish and foreigners, are mentioned in this paper in an intent to contribute a brief view on the evolution of the methods used to treat urethral stricture up to the end of the 19th Century.