Outcomes of Cancer Patients Discharged From ICU After a Decision to Forgo Life-Sustaining Therapies.

OBJECTIVES: Many cancer patients are admitted to an ICU and decisions to forgo life-sustaining therapies are frequent during ICU stay. A significant proportion of these patients are subsequently discharged from ICU, but their outcomes are unknown. DESIGN: Retrospective. SETTING: ICU of oncological hospital. PATIENTS: Adult cancer patients admitted to ICU, then with a decision to forgo life-sustaining therapies and that were discharged from ICU. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Hospital mortality, long-term survival, recommencement of cancer treatment, and ICU readmission were recorded. Hospital mortality predictors were evaluated. The propensity score method was used to test the hypothesis that decision to forgo life-sustaining therapies was independently associated with hospital mortality. Among the 16,998 patients that were admitted to ICU, in 1,369 patients (8.1%) a decision to forgo life-sustaining therapies was made during ICU stay. Among the latter group, 507 were discharged from ICU and were examined in this study. The hospital mortality of this group was 80.1% and was independently predicted according to the occurrence of delirium or acute kidney injury during their ICU stay. Six-month and 12-month survival rates were 3.6% and 0.6%. Sixty-four patients (12.6%) resumed cancer treatment and had a longer survival (p < 0.01). Fifty-two patients (10.3%) were readmitted to ICU and had a longer survival (p < 0.01). The decision to forgo life-sustaining therapies was associated with higher hospital mortality (80.0% vs 26.3%, respectively; p < 0.01) and lower rates of survival (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Approximately 20% of cancer patients discharged from our ICU after a decision to forgo life-sustaining therapies were discharged from hospital. Delirium and acute kidney injury during ICU stay were predictors of hospital mortality. The decision to forgo life-sustaining therapies was independently associated with hospital mortality. Patients readmitted to the ICU and those that resumed cancer treatment had longer survival. Knowledge of these outcomes is important for providing proper therapeutic planning and counseling for patients and their relatives.

Limitación de tratamiento de soporte vital en una Unidad de Cuidado Intensivo pediátrica chilena: 2004-2014 / Limitation of Vital Support in a Chilean Pediatric Intensive Care Unit: 2004-2014

Resumen Objetivo: Describir las frecuencias y características del proceso de Limitación de Tratamiento de So porte Vital (LTSV) en pacientes de la Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos Pediátricos (UCI) entre 2004 2014. Pacientes y Método: Estudio retrospectivo, observacional descriptivo a partir de dos registros de la UCI del Hospital Roberto del Río: 1) ficha clínica individual de seguimiento y 2) ficha de registro de indicadores de calidad incluida LTSV, ambos actualizados diariamente al iniciar la visita clínica. Desde estos registros se analizaron los casos con dilemas bioéticos en los que se propuso LTSV du rante su hospitalización en UCI ("LTSV intra-UCI"). Se menciona la población rechazada de ingresar a UCI ("LTSV pre-UCI") y los fallecidos con LTSV en cama básica. Resultados: De 7.821 ingresos a UCI en el 1,51% (118 pacientes) se establece una LTSV: ONI (Orden de No Innovación) en 78,8% de los casos, retiro de medidas terapéuticas en 14,4% y suspensión de ventilación mecánica en 6,8%. En 23,7% el diagnóstico de base fue neurológico u oncológico, para cada uno. La condición fisiopatológica predominante para una LTSV fue neurológica (39%). El tiempo de estadía en UCI triplica el promedio de estada de los egresos totales de UCI, pero es de amplia variabilidad. Conclusiones: Es factible realizar una LTSV en UCI cuando el equipo incorpora esta perspectiva al trabajo diario junto a la familia. Hay una amplia variabilidad individual en las características del proceso de LTSV, propio del ámbito de la ética clínica.

Abstract Objective: Describe the frequency and characteristics of PICU patients who undergo a process of withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatment (LTSV), between 2004 y 2014. Patients and Method: A retrospective, observational descriptive study, using two documents for quality assessment in the PICU of Hospital Roberto del Río: 1) daily individual patient tracking log and 2) daily record of quality indicators, including LTSV, both updated daily at the morning visit. All PICU patients with an ethical dilemma during their PICU stay in which a LTSV was proposed were included. We men tion patients rejected for admission in the ICU and those who died in basic units of the hospital with LTSV. Results: In 118 patients of 7821 PICU admissions (1,5%) we determined a LTSV: ONR (Non Resuscitation Order) for all of them, ONI (Non Innovation Order) in 78,8%, withdrawal of some therapeutics in 14,4% and withdrawal of active mechanical ventilation in 6,8%. The basic diagnosis was 23,7% for each neurologic and oncologic diseases. The predominant pathophysiologic condition leading to a LTSV was severe chronic neurologic damage (39%). The length of stay was threefold the mean PICU stay, with a large variability due to expectable individual factors when ethic decisions are involved. Conclusion: LTSV is feasible when the team is involved and this perspective is part of daily clinical analysis. The wide individual variability in the LTSV process is expectable in ethical decisions.

[Limitation of Vital Support in a Chilean Pediatric Intensive Care Unit: 2004-2014]. / Limitación de tratamiento de soporte vital en una Unidad de Cuidado Intensivo pediátrica chilena: 2004-2014.

OBJECTIVE: Describe the frequency and characteristics of PICU patients who undergo a process of withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatment (LTSV), between 2004 y 2014. PATIENTS AND METHOD: A retrospective, observational descriptive study, using two documents for quality assessment in the PICU of Hospital Roberto del Río: 1) daily individual patient tracking log and 2) daily record of quality indicators, including LTSV, both updated daily at the morning visit. All PICU patients with an ethical dilemma during their PICU stay in which a LTSV was proposed were included. We men tion patients rejected for admission in the ICU and those who died in basic units of the hospital with LTSV. RESULTS: In 118 patients of 7821 PICU admissions (1,5%) we determined a LTSV: ONR (Non Resuscitation Order) for all of them, ONI (Non Innovation Order) in 78,8%, withdrawal of some therapeutics in 14,4% and withdrawal of active mechanical ventilation in 6,8%. The basic diagnosis was 23,7% for each neurologic and oncologic diseases. The predominant pathophysiologic condition leading to a LTSV was severe chronic neurologic damage (39%). The length of stay was threefold the mean PICU stay, with a large variability due to expectable individual factors when ethic decisions are involved. CONCLUSION: LTSV is feasible when the team is involved and this perspective is part of daily clinical analysis. The wide individual variability in the LTSV process is expectable in ethical decisions.

End-of-life decisions for children under 1†year of age in the Netherlands: decreased frequency of administration of drugs to deliberately hasten death.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether the frequency of end-of-life decisions for children under 1 year of age in the Netherlands has changed since ultrasound examination around 20 weeks of gestation became routine in 2007 and after a legal provision for deliberately ending the life of a newborn was set up that same year. METHODOLOGY: This was a recurrent nationwide cross-sectional study in the Netherlands. In 2010, a sample of death certificates from children under 1 year of age was derived from the central death registry. All 223 deaths that occurred in a 4-month study period were included. Physicians who had reported a non-sudden death (n=206) were sent a questionnaire on the end-of-life decisions made. 160 questionnaires were returned (response 78%). FINDINGS: In 2010, 63% of all deaths of children under 1 year of age were preceded by an end-of-life decision-a percentage comparable to other times when this study was conducted (1995, 2001, 2005). These end-of-life decisions were mainly decisions to withdraw or withhold potentially life-sustaining treatment. In 2010, the percentage of cases in which drugs were administered with the explicit intention to hasten death was 1%, while in 1995 and 2001, this was 9% and in 2005, this was 8%. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: There has been a reduction of infant deaths that followed administration of drugs with the explicit intention to hasten death. One explanation for this reduction relates to the introduction of routine ultrasound examination around 20 weeks of gestation. In addition, the introduction of legal criteria and a review process for deliberately ending the life of a newborn may have left Dutch physicians with less room to hasten death.

Rate of utilization and determinants of withdrawal of care in acute ischemic stroke treated with thrombolytics in USA.

BACKGROUND: Our current practices for utilization of thrombolytics are based on results of clinical trials with no or restricted use of "withdrawal of care" among treated patients. The increasing use of "withdrawal of care" in routine practice may lead to suboptimal outcomes among acute ischemic stroke patients. METHODS: We determined the frequency of "withdrawal of care" and determined demographic and clinical characteristics, and in-hospital outcomes among thrombolytic-treated ischemic stroke patients stratified by use of "withdrawal of care" using National Inpatient Sample data files from 2002 to 2010. RESULTS: "Withdrawal of care" during hospitalization was instituted in 4287 (3.3%) of the 130,437 acute ischemic stroke patients treated with thrombolytics. In the stepwise logistic regression analysis, women [odds ratio (OR) 1.2, 95% confidence interval (CI), (1.0-1.5)], presence of atrial fibrillation [OR 1.2, 95% CI, (1.0-1.5)], hemiplegia/hemiparesis [OR 1.4, 95% CI, (1.1-1.7)], aphasia [OR 1.2, 95% CI, (1.0-1.5)], and postthrombolytic intracerebral hemorrhage (OR 1.5, 95% CI, 1.1-1.8) were significant predictors of "withdrawal of care" among thrombolytic-treated ischemic stroke patient. Hospitals located in the west region [OR 1.7, 95% CI, (1.2-2.4)], and teaching hospitals [OR 1.4, 95% CI, (1.0-1.8)] were more likely to use withdrawal of care. In-hospital mortality (61% vs. 9.0%, P≤0.0001) were higher among those with "withdrawal of care." CONCLUSIONS: Several individual-related and institution-related factors were associated with the use of "withdrawal of care" among thrombolytic-treated ischemic stroke patients. The excessively high mortality and resource utilization mandates a more evidence based policy for "withdrawal of care" in these patients.

Twelve-year review of neonatal deaths in the delivery room in a perinatal tertiary centre.

AIM: To describe decisions made for babies who died in the delivery room as a result of clinical practice of non-resuscitation or unsuccessful resuscitation. METHODS: A retrospective study was conducted of neonatal deaths (NNDs) ≥ 400 g and/or ≥20 weeks' gestation born at Mater Mothers' Hospitals 1998-2009 who were not admitted to a neonatal nursery. Deaths were divided into not resuscitated and unsuccessful resuscitation and subdivided by cause of death as extremely preterm, congenital abnormality or 'other'. RESULTS: Of all 539 NNDs, 217 (40.3%) were not admitted to a neonatal nursery, comprising 174 (80.2%) not resuscitated and 41 (18.9%) unsuccessful resuscitation, while in a further two newborn infants resuscitation was not required. Only 13 of 123 (10.6%) extremely preterm infants who died in the delivery room had resuscitation attempted. Of 77 infants who died from congenital abnormalities in the delivery room 18 (23.3%) had resuscitation attempted. Fifteen babies with other diagnoses died in the delivery room; five with severe intrapartum asphyxia without resuscitation and a further 10 (8 preterm) with Apgar scores of 0-1 at 1 min and ≤3 at 5 min who did not respond to extensive resuscitation. CONCLUSIONS: A large proportion of NNDs occurred outside the neonatal nurseries involving end-of-life decision-making. Review of the circumstances of these NNDs in the subcategories of extreme prematurity, congenital abnormalities and 'other' raises different management dilemmas with the potential for clinical practice improvement in compassionate care and transparency in decision-making.

End-of-life decisions in dutch neonatology.

This contribution describes the regulation of end-of-life decisions in neonatology in the Netherlands. An account is given of the process of formulating rules, which includes a report by the Dutch Association for Paediatrics, two Court rulings, a report by a Consultation Group appointed by the Ministry of Health and a professional Protocol regulating deliberate ending of life in neonatology that was subsequently adopted as the regulation of this type of decision-making at the national level. The paper presents Dutch and comparative data on the attitude of the medical profession towards end-of-life decisions in neonatology and the frequency of such decisions in medical practice.

[Practice of treatment restriction in Hungarian intensive care units]. / A kezeléskorlátozás gyakorlata a hazai intenzív osztályokon.

UNLABELLED: End of life decisions affect most of patients in intensive care units, thus, it is important to know both local and international practice in accordance with law and ethical principles for intensive care physicians. AIM: To search for local customs of end of life decisions (withholding or withdrawing the therapy, shortening of the dying process), and to compare the data with the international literature. METHODS: In 2007-2008 the first Hungarian survey was performed with the purpose to learn more about local practice of end of life decisions. Questionnaires were sent out electronically to 743 registered members of Hungarian Society of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care. Respecting anonymity, 103 replies were statistically evaluated (response rate was 13.8%) and compared with data from other European countries. RESULTS: As expected, it turned out from replies that the practice of domestic intensive care physicians is very paternal and this is promoted by legal regulations that share a similar character. Intensive care physicians generally make their decisions alone (3.75/5 point) without respecting the opinion of the patient (2.57/5 point) the relatives (2.14/5 point) or other medical personnel (2.37/5 point). Furthermore, they prefer not to start a therapy rather than withdraw an ongoing treatment. Nevertheless, the frequency of end of life decisions (3-9% of ICU patients) is smaller than other European countries. CONCLUSIONS: There is a need for the expansion of patients' right in our country. For end of life decisions, self determinations must be supported and a dialogue must be established between lawmakers and physicians, in order to improve the legal support of this medical practice.

End-of-life decision-making and quality of ICU performance: an observational study in 84 Italian units.

PURPOSE: To appraise the end-of-life decision-making in several intensive care units (ICUs) and to evaluate the association between the average inclination to limit treatment and overall survival at ICU level. DESIGN: Prospective, multicenter, observational study, lasting 12 months. SETTING: Eighty-four Italian, adult ICUs. PATIENTS: Consecutive patients (3,793) who died in ICU or were discharged in terminal condition, in 2005. MEASUREMENTS: Data collection included patient description, treatment limitation and decision-makers, involvement of patients and relatives in the decision, and organ donation. A logistic regression model was used to identify predictors of treatment limitation and develop a measure of the inclination to limit treatment for each ICU. This was compared with the standardized mortality ratio, an index of the overall performance of the unit. RESULTS: Treatment limitation preceded 62% of deaths. In 25% of cases, nurses were involved in the decision. Half the limitations were do-not-resuscitate orders, with the remaining half almost equally split between withholding and withdrawing treatment. Units less inclined to limit treatments (odds ratio <0.77) showed higher overall standardized mortality ratio (1.08; 95% confidence interval: 1.04-1.12). LIMITATIONS: The voluntary nature of participation, with self-selected ICUs from a self-selected independent network. CONCLUSIONS: Treatment limitation is common in ICU and still principally a physician's responsibility. Units with below-average inclination to limit treatments have worse performance in terms of overall mortality, showing that limitation is not against the patient's interests. On the contrary, the inclination to limit treatments at the end of life can be taken as an indication of quality in the unit.

Reporting of euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide in the Netherlands: descriptive study.

BACKGROUND: An important principle underlying the Dutch Euthanasia Act is physicians' responsibility to alleviate patients' suffering. The Dutch Act states that euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide are not punishable if the attending physician acts in accordance with criteria of due care. These criteria concern the patient's request, the patient's suffering (unbearable and hopeless), the information provided to the patient, the presence of reasonable alternatives, consultation of another physician and the applied method of ending life. To demonstrate their compliance, the Act requires physicians to report euthanasia to a review committee. We studied which arguments Dutch physicians use to substantiate their adherence to the criteria and which aspects attract review committees' attention. METHODS: We examined 158 files of reported euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide cases that were approved by the review committees. We studied the physicians' reports and the verdicts of the review committees by using a checklist. RESULTS: Physicians reported that the patient's request had been well-considered because the patient was clear-headed (65%) and/or had repeated the request several times (23%). Unbearable suffering was often substantiated with physical symptoms (62%), function loss (33%), dependency (28%) or deterioration (15%). In 35%, physicians reported that there had been alternatives to relieve patients' suffering which were refused by the majority. The nature of the relationship with the consultant was sometimes unclear: the consultant was reported to have been an unknown colleague (39%), a known colleague (21%), otherwise (25%), or not clearly specified in the report (24%). Review committees relatively often scrutinized the consultation (41%) and the patient's (unbearable) suffering (32%); they had few questions about possible alternatives (1%). CONCLUSION: Dutch physicians substantiate their adherence to the criteria in a variable way with an emphasis on physical symptoms. The information they provide is in most cases sufficient to enable adequate review. Review committees' control seems to focus on (unbearable) suffering and on procedural issues.

The practice of and documentation on withholding and withdrawing life support: a retrospective study in two Dutch intensive care units.

OBJECTIVE: We determined how often life support was withheld or withdrawn in patients who died in the intensive care unit (ICU) or early after ICU discharge and evaluated documentation on decisions regarding these changes in life support orders. METHODS: This was a retrospective study in a university hospital and a general teaching hospital. Charts of patients who died during ICU stay or within 7 days after ICU discharge in 2005 were reviewed. RESULTS: Of 2578 admitted patients, 356 patients (14%) died either in the ICU or within 7 days after ICU discharge. For 9 patients data were missing, leaving 347 patients for analysis. Seventy-seven patients (22%) died with full life support, 85 (25%) died while treatment was being withheld, and 185 (53%) patients died while treatment was being withdrawn. One or more changes in life support orders were noted in 266 patients (77%). Only 8% of the patients were recorded to be incapacitated at the time of the change. Patients' preferences regarding life support were documented in less than one-quarter of cases. In approximately one third of cases, it was not documented which member(s) of the ICU team were involved in an end-of-life decision. In the documented cases, end-of-life decisions were made along with the patient (7%) or with the patient's representatives (59%). CONCLUSION: ICU nonsurvivors and patients who die shortly after ICU discharge predominantly die with orders to withhold or withdraw life support. Documentation on the decisions to forgo full life support is poor.

A survey of self-directed dying attended by proxies in the Dutch population.

Physicians may hasten death by medical decisions to end life (MDEL) that have been extensively researched. However, outside the medical domain, some individuals hasten their death by Voluntary Refusal of Food and Fluid while receiving some palliative care (VRFF) or by Independently taking Lethal Medication attended by a Confidant (ILMC). Both dying trajectories are more or less under the control of the individuals themselves. No survey data are available on how often these self-directed deaths occur in the Dutch population. We have isolated VRFF and ILMC from other dying trajectories in a population-based study employing after-death interviews with relatives, friends or nurses. Members of a research database that is representative of the Dutch population (n=31,516) were asked whether they had been a confidant in someone's decision to hasten death by VRFF or ILMC. In this sample, 144 deaths that conformed to our definitions were reported by proxies. We have computed an annual frequency of 2.1% VRFF deaths and of 1.1% ILMC deaths. The annual frequencies of VRFF and ILMC appear to be roughly the same as the yearly frequency of physician-assisted dying (1.8%). In seventy percent of those who had died by VRFF or ILMC, a diagnosis of cancer or a serious illness was reported by the informant. The proxies retrospectively described the self-directed hastening of death by both methods as a dignified death in about 75% of deaths. Both VRFF and ILMC require strenuous efforts and reflect a strong desire to control the process of dying. End-of-life research has shown that some control over the time of death is an important aspect of a 'good death' in western countries. We therefore presume that these self-directed methods for hastening death in consultation with proxies occur in other countries as well.

How patients die after intracerebral hemorrhage.

INTRODUCTION: Severity of illness scores predict all-cause mortality after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), but do not differentiate between proximate mechanisms or predict the timing. We hypothesized that death by neurologic criteria [brain death (BD)], withdrawal of life support, and cardiovascular death would be distinct after ICH. METHODS: We prospectively enrolled patients with spontaneous ICH without underlying vascular malformation or neoplasm. We recorded clinical data and the proximate mechanism of death (BD, withdrawal of life support, cardiovascular death, or other cause). Time to death was compared with Kaplan-Meier methods (log-rank test). Data are median (IQR). RESULTS: Among 89 patients, 15 had withdrawal of life support, 5 had BD, 2 died from cardiac arrest, and 3 died from other causes. Among patients who died, ICH score, age, Glasgow Coma Scale, NIH Stroke Scale, and proximate cause were not associated with the proximate mechanism of death. The time to death was different (P < 0.001) depending on the proximate mechanism. Patients with BD died 1 [0-1] 1 day after ICH, withdrawal of life support led to death 5 [1-13] days after ICH, cardiac death occurred 35 [35-85] days after ICH, and other causes led to death 33 [26-33] days after ICH. Among patients where life support was withdrawn, a higher ICH score on admission was related to earlier death (P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Proximate mechanisms of death after ICH occur at distinct times. Withdrawal of life support leads to earlier death in patients with a higher severity of injury. Medical causes of death can be effectively prevented after ICH.

Eutanasia, calidad de vida y retiro de soporte vital: estudio en 5 Centros de cuidados críticos / Euthanasia, quality of life and retirement of vital support: study in 5 Centers of cares critics

Objetivos. Evaluar opiniones y conductas acerca de métodos de abstención y/o retiro de soporte vital y de la eutanasia, en profesionales que trabajan usualmente en el ámbito de Servicios de Terapia Intensiva. Métodos. Diseño prospectivo, observacional, transversal, analítico. Se encuestaron 130 profesionales de 5 unidades de Terapia Intensiva. Encuesta abierta/cerrada. Estadística descriptiva, regresión lineal y logistica. Resultados. El 86.92% considera que la abstención (A) y/o retiro (R) de los métodos de soporte vital implica límites en la atención médica, el 63.07% piensa que A y R no son equivalentes. El 78.46% no consigna en las historias sus decisiones. El 36.92% no discute con el resto del equipo sus decisiones. Las variables más relacionadas con A y R son: irreversibilidad del cuadro agudo (80.76%) e ineficacia de medidas terapeúticas (70.00%). A es más frecuente que R (47.69% y 40.76%). El 24.61% consensúa con la familia. El 31.53% investiga preferencias previas del paciente. Los R más comunes son: suspensión de inótropicos (50.00%) y de la ventilación mecánica (36.92%). El 15.38% está a favor de la eutanasia. De las variables mencionadas, no se hallaron predictores a favor de la eutanasia en el modelo multivariado. No se hallaron diferencias a favor de eutanasia entre Centros, ni entre médicos versus enfermeros, ni entre médicos experimentados versus en formación (p 0.05 o más en todos los casos). La antiguedad en terapia intensiva no fue predictora de eutanasia en regresión lineal (p0.6110). Conclusiones. La mayoría de los profesionales considera que abstención o retiro del soporte vital implica limitar la atención, sin consignar tal conducta en la historia, y basándose en general en la irreversibilidad del cuadro agudo, la minoría ésta a favor de la eutanasia, sin diferencias según profesión o antig³edad profesional.(AU)

Eutanasia, calidad de vida y retiro de soporte vital: estudio en 5 Centros de cuidados críticos / Euthanasia, quality of life and retirement of vital support: study in 5 Centers of cares critics

Objetivos. Evaluar opiniones y conductas acerca de métodos de abstención y/o retiro de soporte vital y de la eutanasia, en profesionales que trabajan usualmente en el ámbito de Servicios de Terapia Intensiva. Métodos. Diseño prospectivo, observacional, transversal, analítico. Se encuestaron 130 profesionales de 5 unidades de Terapia Intensiva. Encuesta abierta/cerrada. Estadística descriptiva, regresión lineal y logistica. Resultados. El 86.92% considera que la abstención (A) y/o retiro (R) de los métodos de soporte vital implica límites en la atención médica, el 63.07% piensa que A y R no son equivalentes. El 78.46% no consigna en las historias sus decisiones. El 36.92% no discute con el resto del equipo sus decisiones. Las variables más relacionadas con A y R son: irreversibilidad del cuadro agudo (80.76%) e ineficacia de medidas terapeúticas (70.00%). A es más frecuente que R (47.69% y 40.76%). El 24.61% consensúa con la familia. El 31.53% investiga preferencias previas del paciente. Los R más comunes son: suspensión de inótropicos (50.00%) y de la ventilación mecánica (36.92%). El 15.38% está a favor de la eutanasia. De las variables mencionadas, no se hallaron predictores a favor de la eutanasia en el modelo multivariado. No se hallaron diferencias a favor de eutanasia entre Centros, ni entre médicos versus enfermeros, ni entre médicos experimentados versus en formación (p 0.05 o más en todos los casos). La antiguedad en terapia intensiva no fue predictora de eutanasia en regresión lineal (p0.6110). Conclusiones. La mayoría de los profesionales considera que abstención o retiro del soporte vital implica limitar la atención, sin consignar tal conducta en la historia, y basándose en general en la irreversibilidad del cuadro agudo, la minoría ésta a favor de la eutanasia, sin diferencias según profesión o antigüedad profesional.

[Passive euthanasia in clinical practice--the medical decision reflected in the legal position]. / Passive Sterbehilfe in der Praxis--die ärztliche Entscheidung im Spiegel der Rechtslage.

BACKGROUND: Doctors are often confronted with end-of-life decisions. When deciding on the withdrawal of medical treatment physicians have to consider the legal position. This study was done to evaluated how far doctors at the university medical center in Düsseldorf had acted in conformity with the established case law in Germany. METHODS: Between April and August 2006 doctors at the university medical center in Düsseldorf filled in a standardized questionnaire about the decisions they had taken to withdraw life-support treatment. RESULTS: 128 of a total of 512 doctors questioned replied (25 %; 32,8 % females and 67,2 % males) . The survey showed that the judicial decision (that it is not necessary to provide treatment if life-support measures are not indicated) is largely determined by non-medical criteria. The clinical decision by doctors depended mainly on his personal opinion. Furthermore the survey showed that only a few doctors made use of the - lawful - option to withdraw medical treatment when this was not indicated. Finally the survey revealed that, in case of conflict between indication and perceived patients' wishes, the vast majority of doctors behaved in contravention of the decisions established by case law. CONCLUSION: There is the need to discuss what non-medical issues should be taken into account when determining the indication of withdrawal of life-support measures. The results also highlighted the uncertainties that exist regarding a doctor's decisions about it. Not only should legislation clarify whether "passive euthanasia" is allowed, but it would also be useful to delegate end-of-life decisions to a review board.

A pilot audit of the process of end-of-life decision-making in the intensive care unit.

BACKGROUND: Withdrawal of potentially life-prolonging treatments is a common procedure in most intensive care units. Until recently, quality improvement activities have been hampered by the absence of a clear sense of "best practice" in this complex area. OBJECTIVE: This pilot audit addresses the feasibility of developing an end-of-life (EOL) decision-making audit and quality improvement tool and applying it in the intensive care setting. METHODS: Between November 2005 and April 2006, treatment was withdrawn from 47 patients in our ICU. Their charts were audited, and a structured interview was conducted with the intensivist who documented the decision. We defined treatment withdrawal as the cessation of mechanical ventilation and all other forms of life support in the anticipation of the patient's death. RESULTS: 55% of ICU deaths were the result of treatment withdrawal. Overwhelmingly, treatment failure or futility was the reason cited for withdrawal. There were no cases of conflict between the medical team and the patient's family. The level of confidence among intensivists about EOL decision-making was high. Consultation with ICU colleagues was rated as the most helpful factor in decisionmaking. Intensivists wished for earlier and more active support from the admitting medical officers in decisionmaking. Strong support for advance planning and for audit of EOL decision-making was highlighted. CONCLUSIONS: A current ICU quality improvement review lists EOL management as a possible audit item (Curtis et al. Crit Care Med 2006; 34: 211). Our study demonstrated the feasibility of developing a quality improvement tool for EOL decision-making and applying it in the intensive care setting. As evidence about the process of EOL decisionmaking accumulates, that process should become a component of quality assurance audit in intensive care.

The empirical slippery slope from voluntary to non-voluntary euthanasia.

This article examines the evidence for the empirical argument that there is a slippery slope between the legalization of voluntary and non-voluntary euthanasia. The main source of evidence in relation to this argument comes from the Netherlands. The argument is only effective against legalization if it is legalization which causes the slippery slope. Moreover, it is only effective if it is used comparatively-to show that the slope is more slippery in jurisdictions which have legalized voluntary euthanasia than it is in jurisdictions which have not done so. Both of these elements are examined comparatively.

Intentionally hastening death by withholding or withdrawing treatment.

PURPOSE: This study aims to provide empirical data on physicians' intentions in withholding and withdrawing treatment, and to discuss possible implications for the ethical debate. BASIC PROCEDURES: The data presented come from EURELD, a large research project designed to investigate medical end-of-life decisions in six European countries. A continuous random sample of death certificates formed the basis for contacting doctors who had attended the deceased; the doctors were asked to complete, strictly anonymously, mail questionnaires on the decisions taken at the end of their patients' lives. MAIN FINDINGS: In the six countries studied, physicians reported they had the explicit intention of hastening the end of life in 45% of all treatments that were withheld/ withdrawn. The highest numbers of cases with an underlying intention of hastening the end of life were found in Switzerland and Sweden (52% and 51%, respectively); the lowest figures came from Denmark and Belgium (36% and 38%). Middle-ranking countries were Italy (42%) and the Netherlands (45%). Overall, dialysis and respiration were comparatively more often forgone with the explicit intent to hasten the end of life (57% and 54%, respectively), whereas a particularly low percentage of cases with such an explicit intention was found for oncotherapy (34%). PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS: In almost every second case, a medical decision to withhold or withdraw treatment is taken with the explicit intention of hastening the end of the patient's life. No clear association can be found between the intent to hasten the end of life and features of the treatment forgone that can be determined objectively, such as the likelihood and extent of a life-shortening effect, the immediacy of death, or the expected burden of any potential life-sustaining measure. The findings of the study challenge the usefulness of doctors' intentions with regard to hastening the end of life as criteria for moral judgements on decisions to withhold or withdraw medical treatment.