Commercial reverse osmosis point-of-use systems in Egypt failed to purify tap water.

This study addresses the heightened global reliance on point-of-use (PoU) systems driven by water quality concerns, ageing infrastructure, and urbanization. While widely used in Egypt, there is a lack of comprehensive evaluation of these systems. We assessed 10 reverse osmosis point-of-use systems, examining physicochemical, bacteriological, and protozoological aspects of tap water (inlets) and filtered water (outlets), adhering to standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. Results showed significant reductions in total dissolved solids across most systems, with a decrease from 210 ± 23.6 mg/L in tap water to 21 ± 2.8 mg/L in filtered water for PoU-10. Ammonia nitrogen levels in tap water decreased from 0.05 ± 0.04 to 2.28 ± 1.47 mg/L to 0.02 ± 0.04 to 0.69 ± 0.64 mg/L in filtered water. Despite this, bacterial indicators showed no significant changes, with some systems even increasing coliform levels. Protozoological analysis identified prevalent Acanthamoeba (42.5%), less frequent Naegleria (2.5%), Vermamoeba vermiformis (5%), and potentially pathogenic Acanthamoeba genotypes. Elevated bacterial indicators in filtered water of point-of-use systems, combined with essential mineral removal, indicate non-compliance with water quality standards, posing a public health concern. Further research on the long-term health implications of these filtration systems is essential.

Comparative evaluation of different pre-treatment alternatives for granular media filters treating greywater and their ranking using analytical hierarchy process.

In this study, the performance of four different pre-treatment alternatives for granular media filtration, namely, settling, aeration, coarse media filtration and chemical coagulation were compared experimentally. Further, analytical hierarchy process (AHP) was used to compare their performance based on economic, environmental, technical and performance criteria. Performance of settling and aeration were evaluated up to 24 h duration. The coarse media filter was intermittently operated with 10 L of greywater in downflow mode while alum was used for chemical coagulation. Experimental results showed that settling up to 6 h did not show significant removal of different pollutants whereas 24 h settling resulted in moderate removal of turbidity and organic content but was not efficient in the removal of nutrients and faecal coliforms. Chemical coagulation reduced 93, 66, 48 and 97% of turbidity, COD, NH4-N and faecal coliforms, respectively from greywater but resulted in excessive sludge generation and is difficult to adopt on-site and requires skilled supervision. Coarse filtration of greywater resulted in 61, 41, 36 and 35% removal of turbidity, COD, PO4-P and faecal coliforms, respectively. Considering different criteria AHP gave coarse filtration as the best pre-treatment option to the granular media filters treating greywater.

Enhanced removal of ciprofloxacin and associated antibiotic-resistant genes from wastewater using a biological aeration filters in combination with Fe3O4-modified zeolite.

Antibiotics release into the water environment through sewage discharge is a significant environmental concern. In the present study, we investigated the removal of ciprofloxacin (CIP) in simulated sewage by biological aeration filter (BAF) equipped with Fe3O4-modified zeolite (Fe3O4@ZF). Fe3O4@ZF were prepared with impregnation method, and the Fe3O4 particles were successfully deposited on the surface of ZF in an amorphous form according to the results of XPS and XRD analysis. The modification also increased the specific surface area (from 16.22 m²/g to 22 m²/g) and pore volume (from 0.0047 cm³/g to 0.0063 cm³/g), improving the adsorption efficiency of antibiotics. Fe3O4 modified ZF improved the treatment performance significantly, and the removal efficiency of CIP in BAF-Fe3O4@ZF was 79%±2.4%. At 10ml/L CIP, the BAF-Fe3O4@ZF reduced the relative abundances of antibiotics resistance genes (ARGs) int, mexA, qnrB and qnrS in the effluent by 57.16%, 39.59%, 60.22%, and 20.25%, respectively, which effectively mitigate the dissemination risk of ARGs. The modification of ZF increased CIP-degrading bacteria abundance, such as Rhizobium and Deinococcus-Thermus, and doubled bacterial ATP activity, promoting CIP degradation. This study offers a viable, efficient method to enhance antibiotic treatment and prevent leakage via sewage discharge.

Pre-analytical challenges from adsorptive losses associated with thiamine analysis.

Thiamine (vitamin B1) is an essential vitamin serving in its diphosphate form as a cofactor for enzymes in the citric acid cycle and pentose-phosphate pathways. Its concentration reported in the pM and nM range in environmental and clinical analyses prompted our consideration of the components used in pre-analytical processing, including the selection of filters, filter apparatuses, and sample vials. The seemingly innocuous use of glass fiber filters, glass filter flasks, and glass vials, ubiquitous in laboratory analysis of clinical and environmental samples, led to marked thiamine losses. 19.3 nM thiamine was recovered from a 100 nM standard following storage in glass autosampler vials and only 1 nM of thiamine was obtained in the filtrate of a 100 nM thiamine stock passed through a borosilicate glass fiber filter. We further observed a significant shift towards phosphorylated derivatives of thiamine when an equimolar mixture of thiamine, thiamine monophosphate, and thiamine diphosphate was stored in glass (most notably non-silanized glass, where a reduction of 54% of the thiamine peak area was observed) versus polypropylene autosampler vials. The selective losses of thiamine could lead to errors in interpreting the distribution of phosphorylated species in samples. Further, some loss of phosphorylated thiamine derivatives selectively to amber glass vials was observed relative to other glass vials. Our results suggest the use of polymeric filters (including nylon and cellulose acetate) and storage container materials (including polycarbonate and polypropylene) for thiamine handling. Losses to cellulose nitrate and polyethersulfone filters were far less substantial than to glass fiber filters, but were still notable given the low concentrations expected in samples. Thiamine losses were negated when thiamine was stored diluted in trichloroacetic acid or as thiochrome formed in situ, both of which are common practices, but not ubiquitous, in thiamine sample preparation.

Biofiltration of toluene in the presence of ethyl acetate or n-hexane: Performance and microbial community.

This study describes the operation of two independent parallel laboratory-scale biotrickling filters (BTFs) to degrade different types of binary volatile organic compound (VOC) mixtures. Comparison experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of two typical VOCs, i.e., ethyl acetate (a hydrophilic VOC) and n-hexane (a hydrophobic VOC) on the removal performance of toluene (a moderately hydrophobic VOC) in BTFs ''A" and ''B", respectively. Experiments were carried out by stabilizing the toluene concentration at 1.64 g m-3 and varying the concentrations of gas-phase ethyl acetate (0.85-2.8 g m-3) and n-hexane (0.85-2.8 g m-3) at an empty bed residence time (EBRT) of 30 s. In the presence of ethyl acetate (850 ± 55 mg m-3), toluene exhibited the highest removal efficiency (95.4 ± 2.2%) in BTF "A". However, the removal rate of toluene varied from 48.1 ± 6.9% to 70.1 ± 6.8% when 850 ± 123 mg m-3 to 2800 ± 136 mg m-3 of n-hexane was introduced into BTF "B". The high-throughput sequencing data revealed that the genera Pseudomonas and Comamonadaceae_unclassified are the core microorganisms responsible for the degradation of toluene. The intensity of the inhibitory or synergistic effects on toluene removal was influenced by the type and concentration of the introduced VOC, as well as the number and activity of the genera Pseudomonas and Comamonadaceae_unclassified. It provides insights into the interaction between binary VOCs during biofiltration from a microscopic perspective.

Spectral fusion-based machine learning classifiers for discriminating membrane breakage in multiple scenarios.

Membrane breakage can lead to filtration failure, which allows harmful substances to enter the effluent, posing potential hazards to human health and the environment. This study is an innovative combination of fluorescence and ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy to identify membrane breakage. It aims to unravel more comprehensive information, improve detection sensitivity and selectivity, and enable real-time monitoring capabilities. Fluorescence and UV-Vis data are extracted through variance partitioning analysis (VPA) and integrated through a decision tree algorithm to form a superior system with enhanced discrimination capabilities. VPA improves discrimination efficiency by extracting key information from spectral data and eliminating redundancy. The decision tree algorithm, on the other hand, can process large amounts of data simultaneously. In addition, the method has a wide range of applications and can be used in various scenarios accurately. The scenarios include domestic sewage, micropollutant water, aquaculture wastewater, and secondary treated sewage. The experimental results validate the application of machine learning classifiers in membrane breakage detection with an accuracy rate of 96.8 % to 97.4 %.

A novel approach for sludge deep-dewatering via flowing-out enhancement but not relying on cell lysis and bound water release.

Effective deep-dewatering is crucial for wastewater sludge management. Currently, the dominant methods focus on promoting cell lysis to release intracellular water, but these techniques often lead to secondary pollution and require stringent conditions, limiting their practical use. This study explores an innovative method using a commercially available complex quaternary ammonium salt surfactant, known as G-agent. This agent remarkably reduces the sludge water content from 98.6 % to 56.8 % with a low dosage (50 mg/g DS) and under neutral pH conditions. This approach surpasses Fenton oxidation in terms of dewatering efficiency and avoids the necessity for cell lysis and bound water release, thereby reducing the risk of secondary pollution in the filtrate, including heavy metals, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other contaminants. The G-agent plays a significant role in destabilizing flocs and enhancing flocculation during the conditioning and initial dewatering stages, effectively reducing the solid-liquid interfacial affinity of the sludge. In the compression filtration stage, the agent's solidification effect is crucial in forming a robust skeleton that improves pore connectivity within the filter cake, leading to increased water permeability, drainage performance and water flow-out efficiency. This facilitates deep dewatering of sludge without cell lysis. The study reveals that the G-agent primarily improves water flow-out efficiency rather than water flowability, indicating that cell lysis and bound water release are not indispensable prerequisites for sludge deep-dewatering. Furthermore, it presents an encouraging prospect for overcoming the limitations associated with conventional sludge deep-dewatering processes.

An Immiscible-Phase Filtration Device for Isolation, Amplification, and Detection of Nucleic Acids for Clinical Diagnostics.

Clinical diagnostics of infectious diseases via nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) depend on a separate step of isolation of nucleic acids from cells/viruses embedded in complex biological matrices. The most recent example has been reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for amplification and detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA for COVID-19 diagnostics. Kits for RNA extraction and purification are commercially available; however, their integration with amplification systems is generally lacking, resulting in two separate steps, i.e., sample preparation and amplification. This makes NAATs more time-consuming, requiring skilled personnel, and can increase the likelihood of contamination. Here, we describe a setup and methodology to perform the quick extraction and detection of nucleic acids in an integrated manner. In particular, we focus on the use of an immiscible filtration device for capture, isolation, concentration, amplification, and colorimetric detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA.

Development of microfiltration membranes based on polysulfone and polyetherimide blends.

In this study, membranes blended with polysulfone (PSU) and polyetherimide (PEI) polymers in different ratios were fabricated. Their potential to remove pollutants from rivers, which are a potential drinking water source, was investigated. Scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed that the PSU membranes had a dense and homogeneous layer, whereas the addition of PEI formed a spongy substrate. The water content of the fabricated membranes varied between 5.37 and 22.42%, porosities 28.73-89.36%, contact angles 69.18-85.81%, and average pure water fluxes 257.25-375.32 L/m2 h. The blended membranes removed turbidity, chloride, alkalinity, conductivity, sulfate, iron, manganese, and total organic carbon up to 98.32, 92.28, 96.87, 90.67, 99.58, 94.63, 97.48, and 79.11%, respectively. These results show that when PEI was added to the PSU polymer, the filtration efficiency increased owing to an increase in the hydrophilicity of the membranes. Blending these two polymers enabled the optimization of membrane properties such as permeability, selectivity, and mechanical strength. In addition, membrane fabrication processes are simple and incur low costs.

Efficient wastewater sample filtration improves the detection of SARS-CoV-2 variants: An extensive analysis based on sequencing parameters.

During the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, many countries established wastewater (WW) surveillance to objectively monitor the level of infection within the population. As new variants continue to emerge, it has become clear that WW surveillance is an essential tool for the early detection of variants. The EU Commission published a recommendation suggesting an approach to establish surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 and its variants in WW, besides specifying the methodology for WW concentration and RNA extraction. Therefore, different groups have approached the issue with different strategies, mainly focusing on WW concentration methods, but only a few groups highlighted the importance of prefiltering WW samples and/or purification of RNA samples. Aiming to obtain high-quality sequencing data allowing variants detection, we compared four experimental conditions generated from the treatment of: i) WW samples by WW filtration and ii) the extracted RNA by DNase treatment, purification and concentration of the extracted RNA. To evaluate the best condition, the results were assessed by focusing on several sequencing parameters, as the outcome of SARS-CoV-2 sequencing from WW is crucial for variant detection. Overall, the best sequencing result was obtained by filtering the WW sample. Moreover, the present study provides an overview of some sequencing parameters to consider when optimizing a method for monitoring SARS-CoV-2 variants from WW samples, which can also be applied to any sample preparation methodology.

Enhanced anaerobic digestion performance and sludge filterability by membrane microaeration for anaerobic membrane bioreactor application.

Slow dissolution/hydrolysis of insoluble/macromolecular organics and poor sludge filterability restrict the application potential of anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR). Bubble-free membrane microaeration was firstly proposed to overcome these obstacles in this study. The batch anaerobic digestion tests feeding insoluble starch and soluble peptone with and without microaeration showed that microaeration led to a 65.7-144.8% increase in methane production and increased critical flux of microfiltration membrane via driving the formation of large sludge flocs and the resultant improvement of sludge settleability. The metagenomic and bioinformatic analyses showed that microaeration significantly enriched the functional genes and bacteria for polysaccharide and protein hydrolysis, microaeration showed little negative effects on the functional genes involved in anaerobic metabolisms, and substrate transfer from starch to peptone significantly affected the functional genes and microbial community. This study demonstrates the dual synergism of microaeration to enhance the dissolution/hydrolysis/acidification of insoluble/macromolecular organics and sludge filterability for AnMBR application.

Basics of Sterile Compounding: Sterilization Methods in Sterile Product Manufacturing.

Sterilization methods to produce sterile preparations include heat, gas, radiation, and filtration. This article focuses on heat, gas, and radiation sterilization, plus a brief introduction to bright-light sterilization. Microbiology basics and microbial death kinetics, key to understanding why these sterilization methods work, will also be briefly discussed. Filtration sterilization will be covered in a separate article.

Infant milk formula, produced by membrane filtration, promotes mucus production in the upper small intestine of young pigs.

Human breast milk promotes maturation of the infant gastrointestinal barrier, including the promotion of mucus production. In the quest to produce next generation infant milk formula (IMF), we have produced IMF by membrane filtration (MEM-IMF). With a higher quantity of native whey protein, MEM-IMF more closely mimics human breast milk than IMF produced using conventional heat treatment (HT-IMF). After a 4-week dietary intervention in young pigs, animals fed a MEM-IMF diet had a higher number of goblet cells, acidic mucus and mucin-2 in the jejunum compared to pigs fed HT-IMF (P < 0.05). In the duodenum, MEM-IMF fed pigs had increased trypsin activity in the gut lumen, increased mRNA transcript levels of claudin 1 in the mucosal scrapings and increased lactase activity in brush border membrane vesicles than those pigs fed HT-IMF (P < 0.05). In conclusion, MEM-IMF is superior to HT-IMF in the promotion of mucus production in the young gut.

Advancement of membrane separation technology for organic pollutant removal.

In the face of growing global freshwater scarcity, the imperative to recycle and reuse water becomes increasingly apparent across industrial, agricultural, and domestic sectors. Eliminating a range of organic pollutants in wastewater, from pesticides to industrial byproducts, presents a formidable challenge. Among the potential solutions, membrane technologies emerge as promising contenders for treating diverse organic contaminants from industrial, agricultural, and household origins. This paper explores cutting-edge membrane-based approaches, including reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, microfiltration, gas separation membranes, and pervaporation. Each technology's efficacy in removing distinct organic pollutants while producing purified water is scrutinized. This review delves into membrane fouling, discussing its influencing factors and preventative strategies. It sheds light on the merits, limitations, and prospects of these various membrane techniques, contributing to the advancement of wastewater treatment. It advocates for future research in membrane technology with a focus on fouling control and the development of energy-efficient devices. Interdisciplinary collaboration among researchers, engineers, policymakers, and industry players is vital for shaping water purification innovation. Ongoing research and collaboration position us to fulfill the promise of accessible, clean water for all.

Microwave-Enabled Fast Preparation of a Metal-Organic Framework Hybrid Membrane for Filtration-Enhanced Simultaneous Separation and Detection of Aflatoxin B1.

Mycotoxin contamination in food and the environment seriously harms human health. Sensitive and timely detection of mycotoxins is crucial. Here, we report a dual-functional hybrid membrane with absorptivity and responsiveness for fluorescent-quantitative detection of mycotoxin aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). A biomineralization-inspired and microwave-accelerated fabrication method was established to prepare a hybrid membrane with a metal-organic framework (MOF) loaded in high density. The MOF presented high efficiency in capturing AFB1 and showed fluorescence intensity alteration simultaneously, enabling a dual adsorption-response mode. Deriving from the inherent porous structure of the hybrid membrane and the absorptive/responsive ability of the loaded MOF, a filtration-enhanced detection mode was elaborated to provide a 1.67-fold signal increase compared with the conventional soaking method. Therefore, the hybrid membrane exhibited a rapid response time of 10 min and a low detection limit of 0.757 ng mL-1, superior to most analogues in rapidity and sensitivity. The hybrid membrane also presented superior specificity, reproducibility, and anti-interference ability and even performed well in extreme environments such as strong acid or alkaline, satisfying the practical requirements for facile and in-field detection. Therefore, the membrane had strong applicability in chicken feed samples, with a detection recovery between 70.6% and 101%. The hybrid membrane should have significant prospects in the rapid and in-field inspection of mycotoxins for agriculture and food.

Fiber-in-Tube Electrifiable Structure for Virus Filtration Self-Generated Static Electricity by Vibration/Sound.

Fiber has been considered as an ideal material for virus insulation due to the readily available electrostatic adsorption. However, restricted by the electrostatic attenuation and filtration performance decline, their long-lasting applications are unable to satisfy the requirements of medical protective equipment for major medical and health emergencies such as global epidemics, which results in both a waste of resources and environmental pollution. We overcame these issues by constructing a fiber-in-tube structure, achieving the robust reusability of fibrous membranes. Core fibers within the hollow could form generators with tube walls of shell fibers to provide persistent, renewable static electricity via piezoelectricity and triboelectricity. The PM0.3 insulation efficiency achieved 98% even after 72 h of humidity and heat aging, through beating and acoustic waves, which is greatly improved compared with that of traditional nonwoven fabric (∼10% insulation). A mask spun with our fiber also has a low breathing resistance (differential pressure <24.4 Pa/cm2). We offer an approach to enrich multifunctional fiber for developing electrifiable filters, which make the fiber-in-tube filtration membrane able to durably maintain a higher level of protective performance to reduce the replacement and provide a new train of thought for the preparation of other high-performance protective products.

A quantitative comparison of urine centrifugation and filtration for the isolation and analysis of urinary nucleic acid biomarkers.

Urine is a rich source of nucleic acid biomarkers including cell-free DNA (cfDNA) and RNA for monitoring the health of kidney allografts. In this study, we aimed to evaluate whether urine filtration can serve as an alternative to the commonly used method of centrifugation to collect urinary fluid and cell pellets for isolating cfDNA and cellular messenger RNA (mRNA). We collected urine specimens from kidney allograft recipients and obtained the urine supernatant and cell pellet from each specimen using both filtration and centrifugation for paired analyses. We performed DNA sequencing to characterize the origin and properties of cfDNA, as well as quantitative PCR of mRNAs extracted from cell fractions. Our results showed that the biophysical properties of cfDNA, the microbial DNA content, and the tissues of origin of cfDNA were comparable between samples processed using filtration and centrifugation method. Similarly, mRNA quality and quantity obtained using both methods met our criteria for downstream application and the Ct values for each mRNA were comparable between the two techniques.The Ct values demonstrated a high degree of correlation. These findings suggest that urine filtration is a viable alternative to urine centrifugation for isolation of nucleic acid biomarkers from urine specimens.

Adverse effects of Microcystis aeruginosa exudates on the filtration, digestion, and reproduction organs of benthic bivalve Corbicula fluminea.

Cyanobacteria bloom and the secondary metabolites released by the microorganism are extremely harmful to aquatic animals, yet study on their adverse effects in zoobenthos is rare. Corbicula fluminea widely distributed in freshwater environment with algal blooms. It is a typical filter feeding zoobenthos that may be affected by the secondary metabolites of cyanobacteria due to its high filtering rate. In this study, C. fluminea was exposed to Microcystis aeruginosa exudates (MaE) for 96 h, which was obtained from 5 × 105 cells/mL and 2.5 × 106 cells/mL exponential stage M. aeruginosa culture solution that represented cyanobacteria cell density needs environmental risk precaution control and emergent control, respectively. The responses of C. fluminea critical organs to MaE were analyzed and evaluated based on histopathological sections, antitoxicity biomarkers, and organ function biomarkers. The results showed that all the organs underwent structural disorders, cell vacuolization, apoptosis, and necrosis, and the damage levels increased as MaE concentration increased. The detoxification and antioxidant defense systems biomarkers in each organ response to MaE exposure differently and the level of reaction improved when MaE concentration increased. The siphon rate and acetylcholinesterase activity showed that the filtration function decreased significantly as the MaE concentration increased. Increased activity of glutathione S-transferase and amylase in the digestive gland indicate that it is the major detoxification organ of C. fluminea. Increased vitellogenin concentration and enlarged oocytes in the gonad indicate that MaE may have an estrogenic effect on C. fluminea. This study demonstrates that cyanobacteria threat benthic bivalves by inducing oxidative stress, inhibiting filtering feeding system, and disturbing digestion system and reproduction potential of C. fluminea.

Ultrasound-assisted extraction and concentration of phenolic compounds from jabuticaba sabará (Plinia peruviana (Poir.) Govaerts) peel by nanofiltration membrane.

Jabuticaba peel, rich in antioxidants, offering health benefits. In this study, the extraction of phenolic compounds from jabuticaba peel using ultrasound-assisted (UA) and their subsequent concentration by nanofiltration (NF) employing a polyamide 200 Da membrane was evaluated. The UA extractions were conducted using the Central Composite Rotatable Design (CCRD) 22 methodology, with independent variables extraction time (11.55 to 138 min) and temperature (16.87 to 53.3 °C), and fixed variables mass to ethanol solution concentration at pH 1.0 (1:25 g/mL), granulometry (1 mm), and ultrasonic power (52.8 W). The maximum concentrations obtained were 700.94 mg CE/100 g for anthocyanins, 945.21 mg QE/100 g for flavonoids, 133.19 mg GAE/g for phenols, and an antioxidant activity IC50 of 24.36 µg/mL. Key phenolic compounds identified included cyanidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin-3-glucoside, and various acids like syringic and gallic. NF successfully concentrated these compounds, enhancing their yield by up to 45%. UA and NF integrate for sustainable extraction.

Enhanced adsorption of Bismark Brown R dye by chitosan conjugated magnetic pectin loaded filter mud: A comprehensive study on modeling and mechanisms.

Herein, a polymer-based bioadsorbent was prepared by cross-linking chitosan to filter mud and magnetic pectin (Ch-mPC@FM) for the removal of Bismark Brown R dye (BB-R) from wastewater. Morphological characterization analysis indicated that Ch-mPC@FM had a higher surface area and better pore structure than its components. The Artificial Neuron Network (ANN) and Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) were employed to evaluate the simulation and prediction of the adsorption process based on input variables like temperature, pH, dosage, initial BB-R dye concentration, and contact time. ANFIS and ANN demonstrated significant modeling and predictive accuracy, with R2 > 0.93 and R2 > 0.96, and root mean square error < 0.023 and <0.020, respectively. The Langmuir isotherm and the pseudo-second-order kinetic models provided the best fits to the equilibrium and kinetic data. The thermodynamic assessment showed spontaneous and endothermic adsorption with average entropy and enthalpy changes of 119.32 kJ mol-1 K and 403.47 kJ mol-1, respectively. The study of BB-R dye adsorption on Ch-mPC@FM revealed multiple mechanisms, including electrostatic, complexation, pore filling, cation-π interaction, hydrogen bonding, and π-π interactions. The approximate production cost of US$ 5.809 Kg-1 and excellent adsorption capability render Ch-mPC@FM an inexpensive, pragmatic, and ecologically safe bioadsorbent for BB-R dye removal from wastewater.