ABSTRACT
The introduction of formalin, a formaldehyde solution, as a disinfectant and fixative was an essential improvement in anatomical and histological science. This paper is an outline of the historical use of formalin based on primary source texts and historical studies. We describe how the discovery of acetaldehyde in the 18th century led to the development of formalin as the most common ingredient in embalming fluids in the 20th century and is still used today. Particularly important contributions to this process were made by Justus von Liebig, Alexander Butlerow and August Wilhelm Hofmann in the development of anatomical and histological preparation techniques, and by Ferdinand Blum, Ferdinand Julius Cohn, Frederick C. Kenyon and Victor Wehr in the practical uses of formaldehyde solutions in preservation and fixation of soft tissues. However, formalin is not without its drawbacks and as its toxicity became more understood, method to mitigate its effects were demanded. Eventually safer preparation techniques were developed, including Hagens' plastination and Thiel Embalming Method. These techniques may someday largely replace high-concentration formalin solutions but they both still require at least small quantities of formaldehyde to preserve tissues for study.
Subject(s)
Fixatives/history , Formaldehyde/history , Organ Preservation Solutions/history , Tissue Preservation/history , History, 18th Century , History, 19th Century , History, 20th Century , HumansABSTRACT
Formalin, the saturated watery solution of formaldehyde is used in every health care institution worldwide as an effective and cheap tissue fixative. The beneficial effect of the formaldehyde solution was discovered and published exactly 120 years ago and, despite significant technological developments, the formula is still used in the same way. However, tissue based molecular techniques including multiple gene mutation testing from isolated DNA require a highly standardized tissue preservation procedure and the strict control of the composition of the fixative solution applied.
Subject(s)
Fixatives/history , Formaldehyde/history , Tissue Fixation/history , History, 19th Century , History, 20th Century , History, 21st Century , Humans , Tissue Fixation/methods , Tissue Fixation/standardsABSTRACT
This is one of a series of review articles on formaldehyde-releasers and their relationship to formaldehyde contact allergy and in this paper formaldehyde-releasers used as durable press chemical finishes (DPCF) in textiles are discussed. The literature on allergy to DPCF since 1980 is presented in two parts. Part 1 (this article) presents a short historical overview of the problems with formaldehyde in clothes and discusses the chemistry of durable press chemical finishes, legislation in various countries, and studies on the amount of formaldehyde present in clothes. In addition, the DPCF that have caused contact allergy are presented with CAS, synonyms, molecular formula, chemical structure, applications, and patch test studies. In the forthcoming part 2, the frequency of sensitization to DPCF, occupational contact sensitization, relevance of patch test reactions, and relationship to formaldehyde contact allergy will be reviewed, followed by a discussion of both parts of the article together.
Subject(s)
Clothing , Dermatitis, Allergic Contact/etiology , Formaldehyde/toxicity , Occupational Exposure , Urea/analogs & derivatives , Formaldehyde/chemistry , Formaldehyde/history , History, 20th Century , History, 21st Century , Humans , Patch TestsABSTRACT
In the late Fifties and early Sixties the regulation of food additives represented a remarkable turning point in German consumer politics, establishing a debate about decision making and policy advice, altering the discourse of purity and contamination, and inaugurating a new political actor, the organized critical consumer. The amendment of the Food Law in December 1958 functioned as a negotiation process between representatives of science, industry and the state, which was institutionalized in the Senate Commissions of the German Research Foundation. While these Commissions for preservatives, foreign matter and colorants worked behind closed doors, a public discourse about the "toxic condition" of modern life and the negative role of the pharmaceutical and chemical industry gained strength. The debate about the admission of hexamethylenetetramine (hexa) took part at a crucial moment. Hexa was used as a preservative in the fish industry. But its anti microbial effectiveness was caused by the decomposition of hexa to formaldehyde. Despite the commission's verdict against hexa, the lobbying activities of the industry granted it a reprieve. In the media, the case of hexa was seen as a touchstone for the capacity of negotiated decision making and the ability of rational scientists to resist the demands of industry. Finally, in 1963 it was the new political actor of the organized critical consumer, heir and successor to the housewife federations as well as to "purists" advocating life reform, who, supported by the media, enforced the prohibition of hexa as a preservative.
Subject(s)
Anti-Infective Agents/history , Community Participation , Food Additives/history , Food Preservation/history , Formaldehyde/history , Legislation, Food/history , Methenamine/history , Anti-Infective Agents/toxicity , Decision Making , Food Industry/history , Food Industry/legislation & jurisprudence , Food Preservation/legislation & jurisprudence , Formaldehyde/toxicity , Germany , History, 20th Century , Humans , Methenamine/toxicityABSTRACT
OBJETIVO: Presentamos la semblanza del Dr. Suárez de Mendoza, uno de los primeros urólogos formado en Urología en el Hospital Necker, de París, junto al Dr. Guyon, que abrió el campo a la creación de la especialidad en España y el primer profesor oficial de la asignatura en la Facultad de Medicina de Madrid. MÉTODO: Hemos revisado su expediente académico en el Archivo Histórico Nacional y buscado datos en la Facultad de Medicina y en el Colegio de Médicos madrileño sobre su presencia en España. Extraído de los Reales Decretos información sobre la escuela libre de Medicina y la creación de las especialidades médicas en los planes de estudios universitarios y, por último, analizamos su obra escrita. RESULTADO/CONCLUSIÓN: Consideramos al Dr. Suárez de Mendoza una de las personalidades que dieron entidad a la Urología en nuestro país, por su formación, por su amplitud de saberes y por su vasta experiencia, como profesor de la asignatura en la Universidad española, como autor de un gran número de trabajos publicados y como inventor por sus aportaciones al desarrollo de la anestesia y de la Urología. Su tratado, el primero en español que recoge con detalle las primeras innovaciones en los medios de exploración urológicos, nos permite conocer y valorar el progresivo avance y evolución del conocimiento que presenta la Urología
OBJECTIVES: We present a biographical sketch of Dr. Suarez de Mendoza, one of the first urologists trained as so in the Necker Hospital in Paris with Dr. Guyon, who opened the field to the creation of this speciality in Spain, and first official professor of the subject of in the Faculty of Medicine of Madrid. METHODS: We reviewed his academic expedient in the National Historical Archive and search for data about his presence in Spain in the Faculty of Medicine and Medical College of Madrid. From the Royal Decrees we obtained information about the Free School of Medicine, and the creation of medical specialities in the University study plans; finally, we analyzed his written works. RESULTS /CONCLUSIONS: We consider Dr. Suarez de Mendoza one of the personalities giving entity to Urology in our country, for his education, for the amplitudeof his knowledge, and for his wide experience, as professor of the subject in the Spanish University, as author of a great number of published works, and as inventor of his contributions to the development of anesthesia and urology. His treaty, the first in Spanish coveringin detail the innovations in urological examination methods, enables us to know and value the progressive advance and evolution of knowledge in urology
