ABSTRACT
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are among the main atmospheric pollutants; therefore, it is important to monitor and detect their presence in the atmosphere. To this end, low-dimensional carbon structures have been widely used as NOx sensors for their outstanding properties. In particular, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been widely used as toxic-gas sensors owing to their high specific surface area and excellent mechanical properties. Although pristine CNTs have shown promising performance for NOx detection, several strategies have been developed such as surface functionalization and defect engineering to improve the NOx sensing of pristine CNT-based sensors. Through these strategies, the sensing properties of modified CNTs toward NOx gases have been substantially improved. Therefore, in this review, we have analyzed the defect engineering and surface functionalization strategies used in the last decade to modify the sensitivity and the selectivity of CNTs to NOx. First, the different types of surface functionalization and defect engineering were reviewed. Thereafter, we analyzed experimental, theoretical, and coupled experimental-theoretical studies on CNTs modified through surface functionalization and defect engineering to improve the sensitivity and selectivity to NOx. Finally, we presented the conclusions and the future directions of modified CNTs as NOx sensors.
Subject(s)
Air Pollutants/analysis , Environmental Monitoring/methods , Nanotubes, Carbon/chemistry , Nitrogen Oxides/analysis , Air Pollution/analysis , Fossil Fuels/adverse effects , Nanotechnology , Vehicle Emissions/analysisABSTRACT
RESUMEN La movilidad motorizada está íntimamente ligada a los combustibles líquidos como la gasolina y el diésel; y en consecuencia, con el medio ambiente. Además de la problemática con el calentamiento global, la utilización de estos combustibles genera compuestos de carácter contaminante que afecta la salud de la población. Entre todos los contaminantes criterio, el material particulado (PM) de tamaño menor o igual a 2,5 micras (PM25) es considerado como uno de los compuestos de mayor peligrosidad debido a que puede penetrar hasta la región de intercambio de gases del pulmón. Los registros para el Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá (AMVA) muestran eventualmente que los niveles promedio de calidad del aire resultan ser nocivos para la salud del habitante metropolitano. Lo anterior se debe principalmente a las altas concentraciones de PM25 generadas por vehículos pesados que usan combustible diésel. Si bien las propiedades de este combustible tienen un efecto directo en el PM respirable, existen otras estrategias que influyen en las características y la cantidad de las emisiones generadas. Por ejemplo, la mejora del nivel tecnológico de los motores a partir de planes de chatarrización y renovación, y de la pauta de conducción, así como la incorporación de vehículos eléctricos. Con todo lo anterior, este trabajo muestra una serie de consideraciones a fin de plantear posibles estrategias de solución a la problemática ambiental de la ciudad y el país.(AU)
ABSTRACT Motorized mobility is closely linked to liquid fuels such as gasoline and diésel and therefore, to the environment. Besides the problems associated with global warming, the use of these fuels also generates polluting compounds affecting the population health. Among all primary pollutants, particulate matter (PM) less than or equal to 2.5 microns (PM25) in size, is regarded as one of the most dangerous compounds because it can penetrate the region lung gas exchange. The records for the Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá (AMVA) often show that the average levels of air quality were found to be harmful to the health of metropolitan habitants. This is mainly attributed to the high concentrations of PM25 generated by heavy-duty vehicles that use diésel fuel. Although the properties of diesel fuel have a direct effect on breathable PM, there are other strategies influencing both nature and amount of emissions. For example, the improvement of the technological level of the engines and the driving pattern, as well as the incorporation of electric vehicles. This paper shows some considerations in order to propose possible strategies to solve the environmental problem of the city and the country.(AU)
Subject(s)
Air Quality Control , Air Pollutants/adverse effects , Fossil Fuels/adverse effects , Population Health , Colombia , Motor VehiclesABSTRACT
Objetivo Caracterizar la exposición a la contaminación del aire interior por uso de combustibles sólidos en hogares en situación de pobreza extrema en Colombia. Métodos A partir de la información gubernamental oficial de hogares en situación de pobreza extrema (encuesta Red Unidos de septiembre 2012, n=1,3 millones de hogares y >5 millones de individuos) se estructuraron dos modelos de regresión logística: (i) Factores asociados al uso de combustibles sólidos para cocinar a nivel hogar, (ii) Asociación entre el uso de combustibles sólidos en el hogar y prevalencia de limitaciones de la salud a nivel individuo. Resultados Un total de 530 mil hogares en situación de pobreza extrema donde habitan 2,1 millones de colombianos, enfrentan el factor de riesgo (uso de combustibles fósiles en el hogar). La presencia del factor de riesgo está asociada a la zona rural (odds ratio-OR=19,4; intervalo de confianza al 95 %-IC95 %: 19,2-19,6), la etnia indígena (OR=2,9; IC95 %:2,9-3,0) y, de manera inversa, a la situación de desplazamiento (OR=0,6;IC95 %:0,6-0,6). La prevalencia de limitación cardiovascular y/o respiratoria, así como de limitación en visión se asociaron con la exposición. Discusión Las iniciativas que busquen mejorar la salud ambiental y calidad de vida de la población rural de mayor vulnerabilidad socio-económica del país cuentan con información de caracterización e impacto para priorizar programas tendientes a disminuir la exposición al uso de combustibles sólidos.
Objective Characterising exposure to indoor air pollution arising from solid-fuel use in extremely poor Colombian households. Methods Data from the September 2012 survey by Red Unidos (literally United Network, the Colombian government's official instrument for identifying extremely poor households: n=1.3 million households and >5 million people) was used for two logistic regression models: factors associated with solid fuel used in cooking within households and an association between exposure to solid fuel use in households and the prevalence of limitations regarding individual health. Results According to the Red Unidos data-based models, 2.1 million people living in 530,000 extremely poor households were exposed to environmental health risk (i.e. household air pollution caused by solid fuel use). Such risk was found to be related to living in rural areas (odds ratio (OR)=19.4 95 % confidence interval (95 %CI): 19.2-19.6 %), having an Indian background (OR=2.9: 2.9-3.0 95 %CI) and, inversely (i.e. when living in towns), internal displacement (OR=0.6: 0.6-0.695 %CI). The prevalence of permanent cardiovascular and respiratory limitations and limited vision were associated with exposure to indoor air pollution arising from solid fuel use. Discussion Initiatives for improving environmental health and the quality of life for extremely poor rural households in Colombia must make full use of the available characterisation data and its impact for prioritising programmes aimed at reducing exposure to solid fuel use.
Subject(s)
Adolescent , Adult , Aged , Child , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , Male , Middle Aged , Young Adult , Air Pollution, Indoor/adverse effects , Air Pollution, Indoor/statistics & numerical data , Cooking , Environmental Exposure/adverse effects , Environmental Exposure/statistics & numerical data , Fossil Fuels/adverse effects , Fossil Fuels/statistics & numerical data , Poverty , Colombia , Family CharacteristicsABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: Characterising exposure to indoor air pollution arising from solid-fuel use in extremely poor Colombian households. METHODS: Data from the September 2012 survey by Red Unidos (literally United Network, the Colombian government's official instrument for identifying extremely poor households: n=1.3 million households and >5 million people) was used for two logistic regression models: factors associated with solid fuel used in cooking within households and an association between exposure to solid fuel use in households and the prevalence of limitations regarding individual health. RESULTS: According to the Red Unidos data-based models, 2.1 million people living in 530,000 extremely poor households were exposed to environmental health risk (i.e. household air pollution caused by solid fuel use). Such risk was found to be related to living in rural areas (odds ratio (OR)=19.4 95 % confidence interval (95 %CI): 19.2-19.6 %), having an Indian background (OR=2.9: 2.9-3.0 95 %CI) and, inversely (i.e. when living in towns), internal displacement (OR=0.6: 0.6-0.695 %CI). The prevalence of permanent cardiovascular and respiratory limitations and limited vision were associated with exposure to indoor air pollution arising from solid fuel use. DISCUSSION: Initiatives for improving environmental health and the quality of life for extremely poor rural households in Colombia must make full use of the available characterisation data and its impact for prioritising programmes aimed at reducing exposure to solid fuel use.
Subject(s)
Air Pollution, Indoor/adverse effects , Air Pollution, Indoor/statistics & numerical data , Cooking , Environmental Exposure/adverse effects , Environmental Exposure/statistics & numerical data , Fossil Fuels/adverse effects , Fossil Fuels/statistics & numerical data , Poverty , Adolescent , Adult , Aged , Child , Child, Preschool , Colombia , Family Characteristics , Female , Humans , Male , Middle Aged , Young AdultABSTRACT
We carried out bibliographic searches in PubMed and Embase.com for the period from 1996 to 2008 with the aim of reviewing the scientific literature on the relationship between various sources of indoor air pollution and the respiratory health of children under the age of five. Those studies that included adjusted correlation measurements for the most important confounding variables and which had an adequate population size were considered to be more relevant. The results concerning the relationship between gas energy sources and children's respiratory health were heterogeneous. Indoor air pollution from biomass combustion in the poorest countries was found to be an important risk factor for lower respiratory tract infections. Solvents involved in redecorating, DYI work, painting, and so forth, were found to be related to an increased risk for general respiratory problems. The distribution of papers depending on the pollution source showed a clear relationship with life-style and the level of development.
Subject(s)
Air Pollution, Indoor/adverse effects , Energy-Generating Resources , Environmental Monitoring/methods , Manufactured Materials/adverse effects , Respiratory Tract Diseases/etiology , Africa , Asia , Child, Preschool , Developing Countries , Europe , Fossil Fuels/adverse effects , Humans , Infant , Infant, Newborn , Internationality , Kerosene/adverse effects , Paint/adverse effects , Plastics/adverse effects , Polyvinyl Chloride/adverse effects , Risk Factors , South America , United StatesABSTRACT
Los Colegios Profesionales de Ingenieros y de Médicos de Chile convinieron en presentar este documento con información y propuestas relativas a la prevención y control de las graves consecuencias para la salud, el ambiente, la economía y la seguridad del país del uso continuado de fuentes energéticas contaminantes en la industria, el transporte y la generación de electricidad. Desde el punto de vista de la salud, el Colegio Médico detalla cuales son los contaminantes atmosféricos procedentes de los combustibles fósiles y la leña; y revisa sus efectos agudos y crónicos en la mortalidad ymorbilidad respiratoria, cardiovascular y por cáncer, y señala el volumen del gasto consiguiente. Se refiere alcalentamiento de la tierra y a su impacto directo sobre las personas y sobre la salud a través de la alteraciónobservada en los vectores, en la agricultura y en los desastres naturales. Advierte acerca del riesgo que implicaría la introducción de la energía nuclear. Desde los puntos de vista tecnológico y económico, el Colegio de Ingenieros se refiere a los costos crecientes de los combustibles, al control del mercado por privados, a la falta de previsión de estos y a los costos sumergidos de atenciones médicas, del daño a las infraestructuras, de la reducción de la competitividad, de la dependencia de suministros externos y de la vulnerabilidad de los productores nacionales. Ambos Colegios exponen los requisitos que deberían cumplir las opciones energéticas el primero, que no sean contaminantes y la existencia de alternativas tecnológicas viables, ya presentes en el mundo: eólica, mareomotriz, de las corrientes marinas, solar, e hidrógeno. Se describe la situación actual de ellas. Se refieren también a otras fuentes no contaminantes con menor impacto y a medidas complementarias como el ahorro de energía y la forestación. Los Colegios dirigen al gobierno, con sentido de urgencia, una propuesta basada en las energías renovables no convencionales (ERNC) y en el d...
The Chilean Engineers Association and the Chilean Medical Association agreed to present this paper, containing information and proposals regarding prevention and control of the serious consequences for health, the environment, the economy and national security of the continued utilization of polluting energy sources in industry, transport and electricity generation. From the health standpoint, the Medical Association describes the atmospheric pollutants derived from fossil fuels and firewood; and it goes over their acute and chronic effects on respiratory, circulatory and cancer mortality and morbidity; the high resulting expenditure is indicated. The greenhouse effect is also referred to, with the direct impact of heat on persons and the indirect health damage through changes concerning vectors, agriculture and natural disasters. Attention is also drawn to the risks implied by the eventual introduction of nuclear energy. From the technological and economic viewpoint, the Engineers Association deals with the increasing price of fossil fuels, the control of the market by private agents, the lack of foresight of these agents in the case of natural gas imports and the submerged costs such as those of medical care requirements, infrastructure damage, reduction of competitive capabilities, dependence on foreign sources and the vulnerability of national enterprises. Both Associations indicate which are the required characteristics of energy sources above all, that they should be non-polluting and describe the viable technological alternatives: wind power, tides, marine currents, sunlight power, and hydrogen. Their present status is analyzed. A reference is made to other clean sources of lesser potential and to complementary measures such as energy saving and forestation. The Associations, with a sense of urgency, address their proposal to the government. This is based on the development of the non-conventional renewable sources of energy (ERNC)...
Subject(s)
Environmental Policy , Healthcare Financing , Societies, Medical , Fossil Fuels/adverse effects , Renewable Resources , Electric Power SuppliesABSTRACT
A poluição atmosférica é um assunto exaustivamente discutido mundialmente. As repercussões clínicas decorrentes das exposições aos principais poluentes atmosféricos são apresentadas resumidamente. Os padrões de qualidade do ar para esses agentes, segundo a Agência de Proteção Ambiental Americana, estão descritos em relação aos seus valores primários e tempo médio. Os efeitos respiratórios conseqüentes à queima de combustíveis fósseis e de biomassa são apresentados de forma sucinta visando, essencialmente, a alertar os profissionais da saúde para o aumento da morbidade relacionada com a poluição ambiental.
Atmospheric pollution is a topic of extensive discussion the world over. The clinical repercussions of exposure to the principal atmospheric pollutants are summarized herein. According to the American Environmental Protection Agency, air quality standards for these agents are set based on their primary and half-life values. The respiratory effects of the burning of fossil fuels and biomass are succinctly presented, with a special focus on alerting health care professionals of the increased morbidity related to environmental pollution.
Subject(s)
Humans , Air Pollutants/adverse effects , Air Pollution/adverse effects , Cardiovascular Diseases/chemically induced , Environmental Exposure/adverse effects , Respiratory Tract Diseases/chemically induced , Brazil , Chronic Disease , Carbon Monoxide/adverse effects , Fossil Fuels/adverse effects , Maximum Allowable Concentration , Nitrogen Oxides/adverse effects , Ozone/adverse effects , Particulate Matter/adverse effects , Risk Factors , Sulfur Dioxide/adverse effectsABSTRACT
Se presentan los peligros que las energías convencionales y la nuclear significan para la salud humana, el desarrollo económico y la sustentabilidad de la vida. Se ha calculado que la única solución efectiva es el pronto y definitivo cese del uso de combustibles fósiles, los cuales pueden y deben ser sustituidos por energías renovables no convencionales (ERNC): eólica, solar, geotermia y mareas. Son limpias, económicas e inagotables. Se describen algunas medidas complementarias útiles, pero que de por sí no solucionan la crisis. En Chile las ERNC son conocidas y se están ensayando. Pero el gobierno sigue otros caminos, que aquí se discuten por ser inefectivos y nocivos. Se propone aprovechar las oportunidades actuales para que se acuerde una política energética nacional moderna, bien informada e integral, con participación de la ciudadanía, de las profesiones de la salud y de todas las instituciones involucradas.
Subject(s)
Humans , Energy-Generating Resources/economics , Energy-Generating Resources/legislation & jurisprudence , Environmental Policy/economics , Environmental Policy/trends , Health Policy , Chile , Fossil Fuels/economics , Fossil Fuels/adverse effects , Fossil Fuels/supply & distribution , Environmental Health/trendsABSTRACT
El objetivo del presente trabajo fue investigar los efectos de la anestesia con Enflurano e Isoflurano en ratones con niveles hepáticos de citocromo P-450 (CYP) disminuidos o aumentados. Los animales previamente tratados con alilisopropil-acetamida(AIA) (350 mg/Kg), agente destructor del CYP o con Imidazol (400 mg/Kg) como inductor, recibieron una única dosis de los anestésicos ( 1mL/Kg). En el grupo que recibió AIA, los niveles de CYP permanecieron reducidos aún después de la anestesia. Sin embargo, los anestésicos revirtieron el aumento del CYP provocado por Imidazol. La actividad de la isoforma CYP2E1 se indujo en los grupos que recibieron los anestésicos, siendo mayor por la acción conjunta de imidazol y Enflurano, esto indicaría un aumento en la metabolización de este anestésico. En Animales tratados con Imidazol, el Isoflurano revirtió parcaialmente la inhibición de las actividades de B-glucuronidasa y sulfatasa producidas por dicho xenobiótico. Ambos anestésicos causaron una reducción en la actividad de triptofano pirrolasa en el grupo que recibió Imidazol pero no en los tratados con AIA. En conclusión, la acción de los anestésicos Enflurano e Isoflurano sobre el sistema metabolizante de drogas dependería de que el CYP esté inducido o no y del anestésico estudiado a pesar de su similitud estructural.
Subject(s)
Humans , Carcinogens , Environmental Pollutants , Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons/adverse effects , Anthracenes/adverse effects , Benzofurans/adverse effects , Chemical Pollutants , Fossil Fuels/adverse effects , Environmental Pollution , Phenanthrenes/adverse effects , Biomarkers , Neoplasms/etiologyABSTRACT
Actualmente se sabe que la calidad del aire intradomiciliario puede ser un factor tanto o más importante que la contaminación exterior en términos de salud de la población, lo que se debe principalmente al uso de fuentes de energía altamente contaminantes. Problema que adquiere gran importancia en aquellas ciudades con clima frío y lluvioso en donde las personas permanecen preferentemente en lugares cerrados. Por lo tanto, la elección de una determinada alternativa energética para calefacción debe considerar variables cualitativas y cuantitativas tales como: el beneficio entregado, el costo y los potenciales riesgos en salud y medioambiente. Con el objetivo de integrar la mayoría de los criterios de decisión, definidos sobre la base de su importancia relativa, se aplicó a 10 usuarios (incluidos los autores) una moderna y flexible herramienta de análisis multicriterio usada en la toma de decisiones denominada Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). Las alternativas energéticas analizadas fueron: gas, parafina, leña CL (combustión lenta), Leña N (combustión normal), electricidad (sistema oleolítico) y carbón. El análisi del conjunto de los criterios muestra que la electricidad es la mejor alternativa (49 por ciento) seguida del gas (30 por ciento), ambos sistemas fueron significativamente mejores que los otros. este estudio sugiere que el uso de herramientas modernas aplicadas como apoyo en la toma de decisiones en gestión ambiental, permiten evaluar objetivamente un importante problema de salud pública
Subject(s)
Humans , Air Pollution, Indoor/prevention & control , Heating/methods , Air Pollutants/adverse effects , Air Pollutants/analysis , Heating/adverse effects , Coal/adverse effects , Coal , Fossil Fuels/adverse effects , Fossil Fuels , Fires , Decision Making , Electricity/adverse effects , Electric Power Supplies/adverse effects , Electric Power Supplies , Risk Assessment/methods , Paraffin/adverse effects , Risk FactorsABSTRACT
A fin de caracterizar la frecuencia del Síndrome Bronquial Obstructivo(SBO) y determinar factores de riesgo en el menor de cuatro años, se realiza seguimiento a 132 niños nacidos sanos controlados desde el nacimiento en un consultorio del área norte de Santiago. Al cumplir cuatro años el 41,7 por ciento nunca tuvo SBO, 30,3 por ciento lo tuvo sólo en los primeros años, 22,1 por ciento en los cuatros años y 5,3 por ciento comenzaron entre el tercer y cuarto año. La incidencia anual fue 43,2 por ciento en el primer año 33,3 por ciento en el segundo, 18,9 por ciento en el tercero y 11,4 por ciento en el cuarto. Se registraron 287 episodios, 51,9 por ciento en el primer año, 27,9 por ciento en el segundo, 11,8 por ciento en el tercero y el resto en el cuarto año. El promedio de episodios por niños fue 3,72 y la tasa por 100 meseS NIÑO 4,53. La mayor frecuencia de episodios se asocia a ser varón, tener hermanos, antecedentes de atopia personal y familiar, baja escolaridad materna y nivel socioeconomico bajo y uso de combustibles contaminantes en el hogar. Se confirma la importancia del problema en los lactantes y destaca la alta proporción de niños con posibilidad de enfermedad crónica
Subject(s)
Humans , Male , Female , Infant , Child, Preschool , Bronchitis/epidemiology , Lung Diseases, Obstructive/epidemiology , Age Distribution , Birth Weight , Breast Feeding , Cohort Studies , Fossil Fuels/adverse effects , Tobacco Smoke Pollution/adverse effects , Educational Status , Maternal Age , Delivery of Health Care/methods , Risk Factors , Sex Distribution , Socioeconomic FactorsABSTRACT
Nos últimos anos tem-se incrementado os acidentes tecnológicos, especialmente nas plantas petroquímicas, isto devido à complexidade de seus processos e pelas propriedades inerentes do produto, como é o caso do gás liquefeito de petróleo (GLP), altamente inflamável. Com tal objeto, faz-se a análise e avaliaçäo de risco, orientada aos acidentes a nível industrial - planta armazenadora e engarrafadora de GLP e, os de nível domiciliar; baseando-se para tal, nas técnicas propriamente ditas, as quais permitem identificar e avaliar os riscos: análise histórica de acidentes; análise de operabilidade (HazOp); árvore de falhas e árvore de eventos, assim como, estimar as possíveis conseqüências, analisando a vulnerabilidade da área circunvizinha. Cabe ressaltar que para a análise histórica de acidentes se fez uso do Banco de dados da Companhia de Tecnologia de Saneamento Ambiental (CETESB) e do Corpo de Bombeiros da cidade de Säo Paulo. Pelo desenvolvimento da pesquisa, pode-se afirmar que os acidentes com GLP a nível domiciliar só apresentaram vazamentos sem conseqüências graves; já os de nível industrial foi necessário aplicar todas as técnicas, como ferramenta de exploraçäo, para concluir que, se acontecesse algum evento indesejado, as conseqüências seriam de grandes proporçöes, afetando, näo só à indústria, como também o meio ambiente, a comunidade e terceiros em termos de danos humanos, materiais e/ou financeiros. Considerando o exposto anteriormente, foram propostas, medidas de controle e mitigaçäo dos riscos
Subject(s)
Accident Prevention , Risk Assessment , Fossil Fuels/adverse effects , Environmental Health , Chemical Industry , Petroleum , Environmental Pollution/prevention & control , Radiation , Security Measures , Equipment Safety/classificationABSTRACT
1. A case-control study of the relationship between the regular exposure to hydrocarbons and rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (GN) was carried out in Säo Paulo, Brazil. Regular exposure was defined as 1 h or more weekly for 3 consecutive months or longer. We studied 17 patients with rapidly progressive renal failure and biopsy-proven crescentic GN and 34 matched hospital controls. 2. We found an incrased risk of rapidly progressive GN associated with exposure to organic solvents (relative risk = 5.00; 95% confidence interval = 1.14 to 22.00). The frequency of exposure to solvents was 52.9% among the patients and 17.7% among the control subjects (P < 0.05). However, no statically significant increased risk was detected in those patients who had been exposed to fuels (relative risk = 3.25; 95% confidence interval = 0.76 to 13.89); the proportion of exposure to fuels was 47.1% among the patients and 20.6% among the control subjects. 3. Renal histologic findings suggest that immune complex mediated injury as well as a direct glomerular toxic effect may participate in the pathogenesis of rapidly progressive GN associated with hydrocarbon exposure
Subject(s)
Adolescent , Adult , Middle Aged , Humans , Male , Female , Fossil Fuels/adverse effects , Glomerulonephritis/etiology , Hydrocarbons/adverse effects , Solvents/adverse effects , Kidney Glomerulus/pathology , Microscopy, FluorescenceABSTRACT
Cooper smelters are large, usually isolated, sources of air pollution. Arizona has several such plants on the periphery of small communities. The smelters emit predominantly sulfur oxides and particulates, and the residents of these communities intermittently are exposed to high concentrations (24-h sulfur dioxide (SO2) = 250 to 500 micrograms/m3) of smelter smoke but little other pollution. This study compared the respiratory health of Anglo-American school children who lived in one smelter community with children living in another small community in Arizona that was free of smelter air pollution. The prevalence of cough, as determined by questionnaire, was 25.6% in the smelter town children and 14.3% in the nonsmelter town children (p less than 0.05). Pulmonary function at the study onset was equal in the two groups. Over the course of the 4 yr of study, lung function growth (measured as actual forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) after 4 yr of study minus predicted FEV1) was also equal in the smelter town and nonsmelter town children. These results suggest that children in smelter communities have slightly more cough when compared with children living in other communities, but no differences in initial lung function or lung function at yearly testing over the period of the study.