Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study of Electroacupuncture Stimulating Uterine Acupoints.

OBJECTIVE: Based on resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI), to observe the changes of brain function of bilateral uterine points stimulated by electroacupuncture, so as to provide imaging basis for acupuncture in the treatment of gynecological and reproductive diseases. METHODS: 20 healthy female subjects were selected to stimulate bilateral uterine points (EX-CA1) by electroacupuncture. FMRI data before and after acupuncture were collected. The ReHo values before and after acupuncture were compared by using the analysis method of regional homogeneity (ReHo) of the whole brain, so as to explore the regulatory effect of acupuncture intervention on brain functional activities of healthy subjects. RESULTS: Compared with before acupuncture, the ReHo values of the left precuneus lobe, left central posterior gyrus, calcarine, left lingual gyrus, and cerebellum decreased significantly after acupuncture. CONCLUSION: Electroacupuncture at bilateral uterine points can induce functional activities in brain areas such as the precuneus, cerebellum, posterior central gyrus, talform sulcus, and lingual gyrus. The neural activities in these brain areas may be related to reproductive hormone level, emotional changes, somatic sensation, and visual information. It can clarify the neural mechanism of acupuncture at uterine points in the treatment of reproductive and gynecological diseases to a certain extent.

The Potential Relationship Between Different Human Female Reproductive Disorders and Sperm Quality in Female Genital Tract.

Spermatozoa should travel throughout the female reproductive tract to reach its ultimate goal, fertilization of the oocyte. At the ejaculation moment, millions of sperm within a few milliliters of the ejaculate are deposited at the cranial segment of vagina and make their journey to the fertilization site. This is done by means of various factors, such as sperm motility, the uterine and fallopian tubes contractility, and the ciliary movement of the lining cells. During this migration, spermatozoa interact with the female microenvironment both physically and molecularly. In this regard, the quality of the environmental conditions may affect this interaction. Therefore, some alterations in women's genital tract microenvironment, such as conditions that occur in female reproductive disorders, may have detrimental effects on sperm reproductive function. In this review, human sperm migration through the female tract is described, and the potential effects of different reproductive disorders at reproductive organs, such as vagina, uterine cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovary on sperm survival and quality, are also argued. The understanding of those conditions that may impair sperm fertility in the female genital tract can provide a more accurate diagnosis of the causes of infertility in couples. This can ultimately lead to the discovery of effective treatment approaches.

Vitamin D in gynecological diseases.

BACKGROUND: Most reproductive system studies suggest the protective effects of vitamin D, but vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency are growing global health issues. The present study investigates the association between vitamin D deficiency/insufficiency and gynecologic diseases to identify illness risks at different serum vitamin D levels in Taiwan. METHODS: A total of 7699 female adults aged ≥20 years with results for both serum vitamin D and gynecologic-associated diseases were drawn from the Taiwan MJ cohort. We analyzed the correlation between serum vitamin D levels and results from reproductive system evaluations, including history of dysmenorrhea, results of Pap smear, high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection of the cervix, mammography, and ultrasound of breast and pelvis. RESULTS: Over 80% of participants showed vitamin D deficiency/insufficiency. Participants with abnormal Pap smear results, high-risk HPV infection, and history of dysmenorrhea showed significantly lower levels of serum vitamin D (p < 0.001-0.05). Serum vitamin D deficiency was significantly associated with positive high-risk HPV infection of the cervix (p < 0.05) and dysmenorrhea (p < 0.001). After controlling for age as a confounding variable for each gynecologic disease, level of serum vitamin D was significantly associated with abnormal breast ultrasound (odds ratio = 0.724) and uterus ultrasound (odds ratio = 0.673 - 0.8), and dysmenorrhea (odds ratio = 0.829). CONCLUSION: Associations were found between vitamin D deficiency and endometriosis, uterine myoma, dysmenorrhea, abnormal Pap smear results, and high-risk HPV infection of the cervix. Therefore, vitamin D supplements may present a cost-effective benefit for the prevention and treatment of gynecologic diseases, and thus reduction of healthcare expenditures.

Diet and Nutrition in Gynecological Disorders: A Focus on Clinical Studies.

A healthy lifestyle and a balanced diet play a paramount role in promoting and maintaining homeostatic functions and preventing an array of chronic and debilitating diseases. Based upon observational and epidemiological investigations, it is clear that nutritional factors and dietary habits play a significant role in gynecological disease development, including uterine leiomyoma, endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, and gynecological malignancies. Diets rich in fruits and vegetables, Mediterranean diets, green tea, vitamin D, and plant-derived natural compounds may have a long-term positive impact on gynecological diseases, while fats, red meat, alcohol, and coffee may contribute to their development. Data regarding the association between dietary habits and gynecological disorders are, at times, conflicting, with potential confounding factors, including food pollutants, reduced physical activity, ethnic background, and environmental factors limiting overall conclusions. This review provides a synopsis of the current clinical data and biological basis of the association between available dietary and nutritional data, along with their impact on the biology and pathophysiology of different gynecological disorders, as well as an outlook on future directions that will guide further investigational research.

Nutrition in Gynecological Diseases: Current Perspectives.

Diet and nutrition are fundamental in maintaining the general health of populations, including women's health. Health status can be affected by nutrient deficiency and vice versa. Gene-nutrient interactions are important contributors to health management and disease prevention. Nutrition can alter gene expression, as well as the susceptibility to diseases, including cancer, through several mechanisms. Gynecological diseases in general are diseases involving the female reproductive system and include benign and malignant tumors, infections, and endocrine diseases. Benign diseases such as uterine fibroids and endometriosis are common, with a negative impact on women's quality of life, while malignant tumors are among the most common cause of death in the recent years. In this comprehensive review article, a bibliographic search was performed for retrieving information about nutrients and how their deficiencies can be associated with gynecological diseases, namely polycystic ovary syndrome, infertility, uterine fibroids, endometriosis, dysmenorrhea, and infections, as well as cervical, endometrial, and ovarian cancers. Moreover, we discussed the potential beneficial impact of promising natural compounds and dietary supplements on alleviating these significant diseases.

Regenerative Medicine Approaches in Bioengineering Female Reproductive Tissues.

Diseases, disorders, and dysfunctions of the female reproductive tract tissues can result in either infertility and/or hormonal imbalance. Current treatment options are limited and often do not result in tissue function restoration, requiring alternative therapeutic approaches. Regenerative medicine offers potential new therapies through the bioengineering of female reproductive tissues. This review focuses on some of the current technologies that could address the restoration of functional female reproductive tissues, including the use of stem cells, biomaterial scaffolds, bio-printing, and bio-fabrication of tissues or organoids. The use of these approaches could also be used to address issues in infertility. Strategies such as cell-based hormone replacement therapy could provide a more natural means of restoring normal ovarian physiology. Engineering of reproductive tissues and organs could serve as a powerful tool for correcting developmental anomalies. Organ-on-a-chip technologies could be used to perform drug screening for personalized medicine approaches and scientific investigations of the complex physiological interactions between the female reproductive tissues and other organ systems. While some of these technologies have already been developed, others have not been translated for clinical application. The continuous evolution of biomaterials and techniques, advances in bioprinting, along with emerging ideas for new approaches, shows a promising future for treating female reproductive tract-related disorders and dysfunctions.

Exosomes as Biomarkers for Female Reproductive Diseases Diagnosis and Therapy.

Cell-cell communication is an essential mechanism for the maintenance and development of various organs, including the female reproductive system. Today, it is well-known that the function of the female reproductive system and successful pregnancy are related to appropriate follicular growth, oogenesis, implantation, embryo development, and proper fertilization, dependent on the main regulators of cellular crosstalk, exosomes. During exosome synthesis, selective packaging of different factors into these vesicles happens within the originating cells. Therefore, exosomes contain both genetic and proteomic data that could be applied as biomarkers or therapeutic targets in pregnancy-associated disorders or placental functions. In this context, the present review aims to compile information about the potential exosomes with key molecular cargos that are dysregulated in female reproductive diseases which lead to infertility, including polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), premature ovarian failure (POF), Asherman syndrome, endometriosis, endometrial cancer, cervical cancer, ovarian cancer, and preeclampsia, as well as signaling pathways related to the regulation of the reproductive system and pregnancy outcome during these pathological conditions. This review might help us realize the etiology of reproductive dysfunction and improve the early diagnosis and treatment of the related complications.

Mouse model of menstruation: An indispensable tool to investigate the mechanisms of menstruation and gynaecological diseases (Review).

Abnormal menstruation may result in several pathological alterations and gynaecological diseases, including endometriosis, menstrual pain and miscarriage. However, the pathogenesis of menstruation remains unclear due to the limited number of animal models available to study the menstrual cycle. In recent years, an effective, reproducible, and highly adaptive mouse model to study menstruation has been developed. In this model, progesterone and oestrogen were administered in cycles following the removal of ovaries. Subsequently, endometrial decidualisation was induced using sesame oil, followed by withdrawal of progesterone administration. Vaginal bleeding in mice is similar to that in humans. Therefore, the use of mice as a model organism to study the mechanism of menstruation and gynaecological diseases may prove to be an important breakthrough. The present review is focussed ond the development and applications of a mouse model of menstruation. Furthermore, various studies have been described to improve this model and the research findings that may aid in the treatment of menstrual disorders in women are presented.

Biogenesis and functions of circular RNAs and their role in diseases of the female reproductive system.

A member of the newly discovered RNA family, circular RNA (circRNA) is considered as the intermediate product of by-product splicing or abnormal RNA splicing. With the development of RNA sequencing, circRNA has recently drawn research interest. CircRNA exhibits stability, species conservatism, and tissue cell specificity. It acts as a miRNA sponge in the circRNA-microRNA (miRNA-mRNA axis, which can regulate gene transcription and protein translation. Studies have confirmed that circRNA is ubiquitous in eukaryotic cells, which play an important role in the regulation of human gene expression and participate in the occurrence and development of various human diseases. CircRNA may be closely related to the occurrence and development of female reproductive system diseases. By analyzing the biological functions and mechanism of circRNA, we find that circRNA has certain development prospects as biomarkers of the female reproductive system diseases. The production and degradation of circRNA, biological functions, and their association with the occurrence of diseases of female reproductive system are reviewed in this article.

New clinical targets of d-chiro-inositol: rationale and potential applications.

INTRODUCTION: Inositols have a key role in ovarian physiology and the literature reports a wealth of studies about the major isomer, myo-inositol (MI). However, information about d-chiro-inositol (DCI) is still scarce, despite the ratio MI:DCI is tissue-specific and actively maintained by an insulin-dependent epimerase enzyme. AREAS COVERED: This expert opinion provides an overview of the physiological contribution of DCI in regulating steroidogenesis. DCI indeed mediates the intracellular signaling of insulin, which induces the biosynthesis of androgens. Studies on second messengers of insulin also revealed that DCI has a specific role in modulating the activity of aromatase enzyme. Specifically, recent findings demonstrated that DCI influences the enzyme gene expression, thus reducing the conversion of androgens into estrogens. EXPERT OPINION: Available evidence suggests that the effects of DCI administration may be similar to those of aromatase inhibitors, but without causing hypo-estrogenic states. Therefore, DCI treatments should be evaluated for either estrogen-dependent gynecological conditions or low testosterone states in male subjects.

Decreased bone mineral density and reproductive axis dysfunction: more than oestrogen.

Decreased bone mineral density (BMD) in oestrogendeficient states has long been thought to be a direct outcome of the reduction in oestrogen. In physiologic and many pathologic hypo-oestrogenic states, oestrogen supplementation improves BMD. However, the relationship between oestrogen replacement and BMD is less clear in the case of reproductive axis dysfunction secondary to decreased caloric intake or increased energy expenditure, such as in female athletes or anorexia nervosa. This decrease in oestrogen is associated with decreased BMD, but oestrogen replacement in these states fails to conclusively improve BMD. This suggests that the decrease in BMD in these states is not driven solely by low oestrogen. Cortisol and other markers of inflammation may play a role in BMD reduction but further research is needed. What is clear is that increased caloric consumption and restoration of menses and the reproductive axis are essential to improving BMD, while pharmacologic therapy, including oestrogen replacement through hormone therapy or contraceptives, does not provide conclusive benefit.

Quality of Life for Women with Human Papillomavirus-induced Lesions.

OBJECTIVE: To reveal the changes in the quality of life reported by women with Human papillomavirus (HPV)-induced lesions. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional, descriptive-exploratory study of a qualitative approach performed from June to August 2016. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews based on five questions on the concept of quality of life were used. The data were submitted to thematic analysis. All ethical aspects have been contemplated. RESULTS: A total of 20 women aged between 25 and 59 years old were interviewed. From the analysis of the data, the following thematic units emerged: physical and emotional changes, especially complaints of pruritus, discharge and pain, worry, fear, shame and sadness; changes in sexual and affective relationships with decreased libido, dyspareunia and interruption of sexual activity; changes in social relationships resulting in absenteeism at work. CONCLUSION: Human papillomavirus infection impairs the quality of life of women as it significantly affects sexual, affective, physical, emotional, and everyday habits. Therefore, HPV infection can lead to exponential changes in the quality of life of women, which can be mitigated by the availability of sources of support such as family, friends and the multi-professional team, helping to improve knowledge and cope with HPV.

OBJETIVO: Desvelar as alterações na qualidade de vida referidas por mulheres com lesões induzidas pelo papilomavírus humano (HPV). MéTODOS: Trata-se de um estudo transversal, descritivo-exploratório, de abordagem qualitativa, realizada no período de junho a agosto de 2016. Foram utilizadas entrevistas semiestruturadas face a face, a partir de cinco questões fundamentadas no conceito de qualidade de vida. Os dados obtidos foram submetidos a análise temática. Todos os aspectos éticos foram contemplados. RESULTADOS: Foram entrevistadas 20 mulheres com idades entre 25 e 59 anos. A partir da análise dos dados, emergiram as seguintes unidades temáticas: alterações físicas e emocionais com destaque para as queixas de prurido, corrimento e dor, preocupação, medo, vergonha e tristeza; alterações nas relações sexuais e afetivas com diminuição da libido, dispareunia e interrupção da atividade sexual; alterações nas relações sociais com ausências consecutivas no trabalho. CONCLUSãO: A infecção pelo HPV prejudica a qualidade de vida das mulheres, uma vez que afeta de maneira considerável os aspectos sexuais, afetivos, físicos, emocionais e hábitos cotidianos. Portanto, a infecção pelo HPV pode acarretar mudanças exponenciais na qualidade de vida de mulheres, as quais podem ser amenizadas pela disponibilidade de fontes de apoio, como família, amigos e equipe multiprofissional, que auxiliam no nível de conhecimento e enfrentamento do HPV.

Quality of life for women with human papillomavirus-induced lesions / Qualidade de vida de mulheres com lesões induzidas pelo papilomavírus humano

Abstract Objective To reveal the changes in the quality of life reported by women with Human papillomavirus (HPV)-induced lesions. Methods This is a cross-sectional, descriptive-exploratory study of a qualitative approach performed from June to August 2016. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews based on five questions on the concept of quality of life were used. The data were submitted to thematic analysis. All ethical aspects have been contemplated. Results A total of 20 women aged between 25 and 59 years old were interviewed. From the analysis of the data, the following thematic units emerged: physical and emotional changes, especially complaints of pruritus, discharge and pain, worry, fear, shame and sadness; changes in sexual and affective relationships with decreased libido, dyspareunia and interruption of sexual activity; changes in social relationships resulting in absenteeism at work. Conclusion Human papillomavirus infection impairs the quality of life of women as it significantly affects sexual, affective, physical, emotional, and everyday habits. Therefore, HPV infection can lead to exponential changes in the quality of life of women, which can be mitigated by the availability of sources of support such as family, friends and the multi-professional team, helping to improve knowledge and cope with HPV.

Resumo Objetivo Desvelar as alterações na qualidade de vida referidas por mulheres com lesões induzidas pelo papilomavírus humano (HPV). Métodos Trata-se de um estudo transversal, descritivo-exploratório, de abordagem qualitativa, realizada no período de junho a agosto de 2016. Foram utilizadas entrevistas semiestruturadas face a face, a partir de cinco questões fundamentadas no conceito de qualidade de vida. Os dados obtidos foram submetidos a análise temática. Todos os aspectos éticos foram contemplados. Resultados Foram entrevistadas 20 mulheres com idades entre 25 e 59 anos. A partir da análise dos dados, emergiram as seguintes unidades temáticas: alterações físicas e emocionais com destaque para as queixas de prurido, corrimento e dor, preocupação, medo, vergonha e tristeza; alterações nas relações sexuais e afetivas com diminuição da libido, dispareunia e interrupção da atividade sexual; alterações nas relações sociais com ausências consecutivas no trabalho. Conclusão A infecção pelo HPV prejudica a qualidade de vida das mulheres, uma vez que afeta de maneira considerável os aspectos sexuais, afetivos, físicos, emocionais e hábitos cotidianos. Portanto, a infecção pelo HPV pode acarretar mudanças exponenciais na qualidade de vida de mulheres, as quais podem ser amenizadas pela disponibilidade de fontes de apoio, como família, amigos e equipe multiprofissional, que auxiliam no nível de conhecimento e enfrentamento do HPV.

Roles of steroid hormones in oviductal function

The oviduct (known as the fallopian tube in humans) is the site for fertilization and pre-implantation embryo development. Female steroid hormones, estrogen and progesterone, are known to modulate the morphology and function of cells in the oviduct. In this review, we focus on the actions of estrogen and progesterone on secretory, ciliated, and muscle cell functions and morphologies during fertilization, pre-implantation embryo development, and embryo transport in humans, laboratory rodents and farm animals. We review some aspects of oviductal anatomy and histology and discuss current assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) that bypass the oviduct and their effects on embryo quality. Lastly, we review the causes of alterations in secretory, ciliated, and muscle cell functions that could result in embryo transport defects.

Functioning and disability of premenopausal women with urinary incontinence: An assessment by using the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule-WHODAS 2.0.

AIMS: To analyze the association between urinary incontinence and disability status in premenopausal women. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study included 120 premenopausal women recruited from six Basic Family Health Units to participate in this study. We assessed sociodemographic, gynecological, and obstetric data by using specific questions. The International Continence Society's definitions were applied to determine the presence and type of urinary incontinence, and the disability was assessed by using the 36-item version of the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule (WHODAS) 2.0. RESULTS: The WHODAS scores showed that women with urinary incontinence had a worse disability in cognition (P = .023) and mobility (P = .020) domains, in addition to the total score (P = .23). Women with mixed urinary incontinence had a worse disability in mobility domain (P = .039) than those with stress or urgency incontinence. Qualitative analyses of disability showed a significant difference between women with and without urinary incontinence (P = .033), with higher percentages of incontinent women with moderate and severe disability. Women who reported urinary incontinence had 7.69 more points on the final score of WHODAS than those who did not report this outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Urinary incontinence in women of reproductive age is associated with disability and worse scores of WHODAS when we compare them to women without urine leakage. The results presented can be useful for designing and adapting strategies for comprehensive care of women with urinary incontinence and disability, and developing rehabilitation programs based on functioning.

Calcium Supplementation Alleviates High-Fat Diet-Induced Estrous Cycle Irregularity and Subfertility Associated with Concomitantly Enhanced Thermogenesis of Brown Adipose Tissue and Browning of White Adipose Tissue.

Obesity has been demonstrated as a disruptor of female fertility. Our previous study showed the antiobesity effects of calcium on HFD-fed male mice. However, the role of calcium in alleviating reproductive dysfunction of HFD-fed female mice remains unclear. Here, we found that HFD led to estrus cycle irregularity (longer cycle duration and shorter estrus period) and subfertility (longer conception time, lower fertility index, and less implantations) in mice. However, the HFD-induced reproductive abnormality was alleviated by calcium supplementation. Additionally, calcium supplementation enhanced activation/thermogenesis of BAT and browning of WAT in HFD-fed mice. Consequently, the abnormality of energy metabolism and glucose homeostasis induced by HFD were improved by calcium supplementation, with elevated metabolic rates and core temperature. In conclusion, these data showed that calcium supplementation alleviated HFD-induced estrous cycle irregularity and subfertility associated with concomitantly enhanced BAT thermogenesis and WAT browning, suggesting the potential application of calcium in improving obesity-related reproductive disorders.

Genital Sensations in Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder: A Case for an Overarching Nosology of Genitopelvic Dysesthesias?

INTRODUCTION: Persistent genital arousal disorder (PGAD) is a highly distressing and poorly understood condition characterized by unwanted sensations of genital arousal in the absence of subjective sexual desire. Research has shown that some individuals with PGAD also report orgasm, urinary, and pain symptoms, with 1 recent study specifically comparing a "painful persistent genital arousal symptom" group to a "non-painful persistent genital arousal symptom" group on various indicators given the highly frequent report of comorbid genitopelvic pain in their sample. AIM: To review literature on PGAD focusing on the presence of pain symptoms. METHODS: A literature review through May 2018 was undertaken to identify articles that discuss pain characteristics in individuals with persistent sexual arousal syndrome, persistent genital arousal disorder, symptoms of persistent genital arousal, and restless genital syndrome. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: A review of pain/discomfort associated with persistent genital arousal, and the proposal of a new theoretical framework of genitopelvic dysesthesias. RESULTS: PGAD is a distressing condition that is associated with a significant, negative impacts on psychosocial and daily functioning. Although it is clear that unwanted and persistent genital arousal is the hallmark symptom of PGAD, symptoms of pain and discomfort are also frequently reported. Based on the results of this review, a model of genitopelvic dysesthesias is proposed, with subcategories of unpleasant sensations that are based on patients' primary complaint: arousal, arousal and pain, or pain (and other sensations). CONCLUSION: The proposed model can provide an important framework for conceptualizing conditions characterized by unpleasant genitopelvic sensations. A model such as this one can benefit highly misunderstood conditions that are questioned in terms of their legitimacy and severity-such as PGAD-by conceptualizing them as sensory disorders, which in turn can reduce stigma, unify research efforts, and potentially improve access to care. Pukall CF, Jackowich R, Mooney K, et al. Genital Sensations in Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder: A Case for an Overarching Nosology of Genitopelvic Dysesthesias? Sex Med Rev 2019;7:2-12.

Outcomes in Fournier's Gangrene Using Skin and Soft Tissue Sparing Flap Preservation Surgery for Wound Closure: An Alternative Approach to Wide Radical Debridement.

INTRODUCTION: Fournier's gangrene (FG) remains a forbidding necrotizing soft tissue infection (NSTI) that necessitates early recognition, prompt surgical excision, and goal-directed antibiotic therapy. Traditionally, surgical management has included wide radical excision for sepsis control, but this management often leaves large, morbid wounds that require complex wound coverage, prolonged hospitalizations, and/or delayed healing. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this case series is to report the outcomes of FG using a surrogate approach of concurrent debridement of spared skin and soft tissue, negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT), and serial delayed primary closure (DPC). MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective review of 17 consecutive patients with FG treated with concurrent skin and soft tissue sparing surgery, NPWT, and serial DPC at Miami Valley Hospital Regional Adult Burn and Wound Center (Dayton, OH) between 2008 and 2018 was conducted. Patients were included if the following were noted: clinical suspicion of FG based on genital and perineal cellulitis, fever, leukocytosis, and confirmation of tissue necrosis upon surgical exploration. Patients not treated with skin sparing surgical debridement or wounds with an inability to maintain a NPWT dressing seal were excluded. RESULTS: The mean number of total surgeries including simultaneous debridement and reconstruction was 5.5. The average intensive care unit and hospital length of stay was 3.2 and 18.9 days, respectively. The average number of days from initial consult to wound closure was 24.3. The need for colostomy and skin grafts were nearly eliminated with this surrogate approach. Using this reproducible technique, DPC was achieved in 100% of patients. Only 11.8% (2/17) required split-thickness skin grafting as part of wound closure. The majority (9/17; 52.9%) were partially managed as an outpatient during wound closure. During staged DPC, the mean number of outpatient management days was 16.0. There were no mortalities in this series of patients. CONCLUSIONS: To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the largest case series reported in the literature using skin and soft tissue sparing surgery for wound closure of a FG NSTI.

Hormone Therapy: Key Points From NAMS 2017 Position Statement.

The goal of the 2017 North American Menopause Society Hormone Therapy (HT) Position Statement is to remove fear about HT and encourage individualized shared decision making, using best available evidence. Systemic HT is safe and effective for symptomatic menopausal women aged younger than 60 years and within 10 years of menopause. Special populations of early menopause, high risk for fracture, risk of breast or uterine cancer, and extended duration are discussed. With longer duration of use, periodic evaluation and reassessment of health risks are needed. Lowered doses, transdermal therapies or newer options may enhance the benefit:risk ratio for HT.