Biofilm-Forming Ability and Effect of Sanitation Agents on Biofilm-Control of Thermophile Geobacillus sp. D413 and Geobacillus toebii E134.

Geobacillus sp. D413 and Geobacillus toebii E134 are aerobic, non-pathogenic, endospore-forming, obligately thermophilic bacilli. Gram-positive thermophilic bacilli can produce heat-resistant spores. The bacteria are indicator organisms for assessing the manufacturing process's hygiene and are capable of forming biofilms on surfaces used in industrial sectors. The present study aimed to determine the biofilm-forming properties of Geobacillus isolates and how to eliminate this formation with sanitation agents. According to the results, extracellular DNA (eDNA) was interestingly not affected by the DNase I, RNase A, and proteinase K. However, the genomic DNA (gDNA) was degraded by only DNase I. It seemed that the eDNA had resistance to DNase I when purified. It is considered that the enzymes could not reach the target eDNA. Moreover, the eDNA resistance may result from the conserved folded structure of eDNA after purification. Another assumption is that the eDNA might be protected by other extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and/or extracellular membrane vesicles (EVs) structures. On the contrary, DNase I reduced unpurified eDNA (mature biofilms). Biofilm formation on surfaces used in industrial areas was investigated in this work: the D413 and E134 isolates adhered to all surfaces. Various sanitation agents could control biofilms of Geobacillus isolates. The best results were provided by nisin for D413 (80%) and α-amylase for E134 (98%). This paper suggests that sanitation agents could be a solution to control biofilm structures of thermophilic bacilli.

Low frequency ultrasound inactivation of thermophilic bacilli (Geobacillus spp. and Anoxybacillus flavithermus) in the presence of sodium hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide.

The vegetative cells and spores of Geobacillus spp. and Anoxybacillus flavithermus were subjected to 20 kHz ultrasound with a power ∼8 W. Ultrasonication had considerable effect on vegetative cells (5-log reduction in Geobacillus spp. and 1.6-log reduction in A.flavithermus). TEM imaging of the ultrasonicated vegetative cells showed an extensive damage both internally and externally. However, spores showed high resistance towards ultrasound treatment in the absence of NaOH and H2O2, although the outer layers such as the exosporium and the outer coat layer were disrupted, resulting in the reduced resistance of spores towards sonication. The combination of 0.12 M NaOH and 10 min ultrasonication inactivated 6 log spores of Geobacillus spp. A 7 log spore reduction of A.flavithermus was achieved by combining 0.17 M NaOH with 10 min ultrasonication. Ultrasonication combined with 1% H2O2 inactivated ∼7 log Geobacillus spp. spores in 6 min and ∼7 log A.flavithermus spores in 3 min. These ultrasound treatments in the presence of NaOH and H2O2 are synergistic as they showed a greater spore reduction when compared to NaOH combined with high temperature (85 °C), where only 1 and 3 log reduction was achieved in Geobacillus spp. and A.flavithermus spores, respectively.

Biochemical characterization of a thermostable cobalt- or copper-dependent polyphenol oxidase with dye decolorizing ability from Geobacillus sp. JS12.

A putative laccase-like gene, GPPO, encoding a protein of 17.2 kDa and belonging to the multicopper oxidase family, was cloned and overexpressed in Escherichia coli cells. The purified recombinant protein GPPO is homodecameric protein with a molecular weight of 171.6 kDa. GPPO was not detected the ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV/Vis) spectrum of typical laccases. Co2+ or Cu2+ was essential for substrate oxidation of GPPO, and the enzyme contained 1 mol of Co or Cu per mole of protein. The optimum pH required for the oxidation of 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothazoline-6-sulfonate) (ABTS) and 2,6-dimethoxyphenol (DMP) was 4.5 and 5.5, respectively, and the optimum temperature was 75 °C. The half-life of heat inactivation was about 8 min at 80 °C and 90 min at 90 °C, in the presence of Cu2+ and Co2+, respectively. The catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) of GPPO containing Co2+ was 68 times higher than that of GPPO containing Cu2+. The enzyme reaction was inhibited by conventional inhibitors of laccase like metal chelators and thiol compounds. GPPO incubated with Cu2+ or Co2+ for 48 h decolorizes 45% or 47% of Nile blue, respectively. This is the first report of a novel thermostable polyphenol oxidase that shows the cobalt-dependent laccase activity and dye decolorization ability.

Antibiotic resistance mutations induced in growing cells of Bacillus-related thermophiles.

Stress-induced mutagenesis can assist pathogens in generating drug-resistant cells during antibiotic therapy; however, if and how antibiotics induce mutagenesis in microbes remains poorly understood. A non-pathogenic thermophile, Geobacillus kaustophilus HTA426, efficiently produces derivative cells resistant to rifampicin and streptomycin via rpoB and rpsL mutations, respectively. Here, we examined this phenomenon to suggest a novel mutagenic mode induced by antibiotics. Fluctuation analysis indicated that mutations occurred via spontaneous mutations during culture. However, mutations were much more frequent in growing cells than stationary cells, and mutation sites were varied through cell growth. These observations suggested that growing cells induced mutagenesis in response to antibiotics. An in-frame deletion of mfd, which governs transcription-coupled repair to correct DNA lesions on the transcribed strand, caused mutations that were comparable between growing and stationary cells; therefore, the mutagenic mechanism was attributable to DNA repair defects where growing cells depressed mfd function. Mutations occurred more frequently at optimal growth temperatures for G. kaustophilus than at a higher growth temperature, suggesting that the mutagenesis relies on active cellular activities rather than high temperature-associated DNA damage. In addition, the mutagenesis may involve a mutagenic factor targeting these sites, in addition to mfd depression, because rpoB and rpsL mutations were dominant at thymine and guanine sites on the transcribed strand. A similar mutagenic profile was observed for other Geobacillus and thermophilic Bacillus species. This suggests that Bacillus-related thermophiles commonly induce mutagenesis in response to rifampicin and streptomycin to produce resistant cells.

Effect of moisture equilibration time and medium on contact angles of bacterial spores.

Contact angle measurement of microorganisms is often described in literature, either to investigate their hydrophobic characteristic or the adhesion behavior of cells. However, in some key aspects the preparation methods differ. Thus, it is difficult to compare results and to choose a procedure for repetition of measurements. The aim of this paper is to point out some critical points during microorganism film preparation that can alter the resulting contact angles. Depending on the moisturizing medium and equilibration time, contact angles differ significantly.

A thiostrepton resistance gene and its mutants serve as selectable markers in Geobacillus kaustophilus HTA426.

Effective utilization of microbes often requires complex genetic modification using multiple antibiotic resistance markers. Because a few markers have been used in Geobacillus spp., the present study was designed to identify a new marker for these thermophiles. We explored antibiotic resistance genes functional in Geobacillus kaustophilus HTA426 and identified a thiostrepton resistance gene (tsr) effective at 50 °C. The tsr gene was further used to generate the mutant tsr(H258Y) functional at 55 °C. Higher functional temperature of the mutant was attributable to the increase in thermostability of the gene product because recombinant protein produced from tsr(H258Y) was more thermostable than that from tsr. In fact, the tsr(H258Y) gene served as a selectable marker for plasmid transformation of G. kaustophilus. This new marker could facilitate complex genetic modification of G. kaustophilus and potentially other Geobacillus spp.

Changes in Sodium, Calcium, and Magnesium Ion Concentrations That Inhibit Geobacillus Biofilms Have No Effect on Anoxybacillus flavithermus Biofilms.

This study investigated the effects of varied sodium, calcium, and magnesium concentrations in specialty milk formulations on biofilm formation by Geobacillus spp. and Anoxybacillus flavithermus. The numbers of attached viable cells (log CFU per square centimeter) after 6 to 18 h of biofilm formation by three dairy-derived strains of Geobacillus and three dairy-derived strains of A. flavithermus were compared in two commercial milk formulations. Milk formulation B had relatively high sodium and low calcium and magnesium concentrations compared with those of milk formulation A, but the two formulations had comparable fat, protein, and lactose concentrations. Biofilm formation by the three Geobacillus isolates was up to 4 log CFU cm(-2) lower in milk formulation B than in milk formulation A after 6 to 18 h, and the difference was often significant (P ≤ 0.05). However, no significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) were found when biofilm formations by the three A. flavithermus isolates were compared in milk formulations A and B. Supplementation of milk formulation A with 100 mM NaCl significantly decreased (P ≤ 0.05) Geobacillus biofilm formation after 6 to 10 h. Furthermore, supplementation of milk formulation B with 2 mM CaCl2 or 2 mM MgCl2 significantly increased (P ≤ 0.05) Geobacillus biofilm formation after 10 to 18 h. It was concluded that relatively high free Na(+) and low free Ca(2+) and Mg(2+) concentrations in milk formulations are collectively required to inhibit biofilm formation by Geobacillus spp., whereas biofilm formation by A. flavithermus is not impacted by typical cation concentration differences of milk formulations.

Inactivation of chemical and heat-resistant spores of Bacillus and Geobacillus by nitrogen cold atmospheric plasma evokes distinct changes in morphology and integrity of spores.

Bacterial spores are resistant to severe conditions and form a challenge to eradicate from food or food packaging material. Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) treatment is receiving more attention as potential sterilization method at relatively mild conditions but the exact mechanism of inactivation is still not fully understood. In this study, the biocidal effect by nitrogen CAP was determined for chemical (hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide), physical (UV) and heat-resistant spores. The three different sporeformers used are Bacillus cereus a food-borne pathogen, and Bacillus atrophaeus and Geobacillus stearothermophilus that are used as biological indicators for validation of chemical sterilization and thermal processes, respectively. The different spores showed variation in their degree of inactivation by applied heat, hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, and UV treatments, whereas similar inactivation results were obtained with the different spores treated with nitrogen CAP. G. stearothermophilus spores displayed high resistance to heat, hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, while for UV treatment B. atrophaeus spores are most tolerant. Scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed distinct morphological changes for nitrogen CAP-treated B. cereus spores including etching effects and the appearance of rough spore surfaces, whereas morphology of spores treated with heat or disinfectants showed no such changes. Moreover, microscopy analysis revealed CAP-exposed B. cereus spores to turn phase grey conceivably because of water influx indicating damage of the spores, a phenomenon that was not observed for non-treated spores. In addition, data are supplied that exclude UV radiation as determinant of antimicrobial activity of nitrogen CAP. Overall, this study shows that nitrogen CAP treatment has a biocidal effect on selected Bacillus and Geobacillus spores associated with alterations in spore surface morphology and loss of spore integrity.

Cd, Cu, Ni, Mn and Zn resistance and bioaccumulation by thermophilic bacteria, Geobacillus toebii subsp. decanicus and Geobacillus thermoleovorans subsp. stromboliensis.

Bioaccumulation and heavy metal resistance of Cd(2+), Cu(2+), Ni(2+), Zn(2+) and Mn(2+) ions by thermophilic Geobacillus toebii subsp. decanicus and Geobacillus thermoleovorans subsp. stromboliensis were investigated. The metal resistance from the most resistant to the most sensitive was found as Mn > Ni > Cu > Zn > Cd for both Geobacillus thermoleovorans subsp. stromboliensis and Geobacillus toebii subsp. decanicus. It was determined that the highest metal bioaccumulation was performed by Geobacillus toebii subsp. decanicus for Zn (36,496 µg/g dry weight cell), and the lowest metal bioaccumulation was performed by Geobacillus toebii subsp. decanicus for Ni (660.3 µg/g dry weight cell). Moreover, the dead cells were found to biosorbe more metal in their membranes compared to the live cells. In the presence of 7.32 mg/l Cd concentration, the levels of Cd absorbed in live and dead cell membranes were found as 17.44 and 46.2 mg/g membrane, respectively.

Characterization of the newly isolated Geobacillus sp. T1, the efficient cellulase-producer on untreated barley and wheat straws.

A thermophile cellulase-producing bacterium was isolated and identified as closely related to Geobacillus subterraneus. The strain, named Geobacillus sp. T1, was able to grow and produce cellulase on cellobiose, microcrystalline cellulose, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), barley straw, wheat straw and Whatman No. 1 filter paper. However, barley and wheat straws were significantly better substrates for cellulase production. When Geobacillus sp. T1 was cultivated in the presence of 0.5% barley straw, 0.1% Tween 80 and pH 6.5 at 50°C, the maximum level of free cellulase up to 143.50 U/mL was produced after 24h. This cellulase (≈ 54 kDa) was most active at pH 6.5 and 70°C. The enzyme in citrate phosphate buffer (10mM) was stable at 60°C for at least 1h. Geobacillus sp. T1 with efficient growth and cellulase production on straws seems a potential candidate for conversion of agricultural biomass to fuels.

Influence of cations on growth of thermophilic Geobacillus spp. and Anoxybacillus flavithermus in planktonic culture.

Free ions of Na(+), K(+), Ca(2+), and Mg(2+) influenced the optical density of planktonic cultures of thermophilic bacilli. Anoxybacillus flavithermus E16 and Geobacillus sp. strain F75 (milk powder manufacturing plant isolates) and A. flavithermus DSM 2641 and G. thermoleovorans DSM 5366 were studied. Ca(2+) and Mg(2+) were associated with increases in optical density more so than Na(+) and K(+). Overall, it appeared that Ca(2+) and/or Mg(2+) was required for the production of protein in thermophilic bacilli, as shown by results obtained with A. flavithermus E16, which was selected for further study.

Isolation and characterization of arsenic resistant Geobacillus kaustophilus strain from geothermal soils.

A thermophilic, arsenate resistant bacterial strain was isolated from a geothermal field located in the area surrounding Monterotondo (Tuscany, Italy). Based on 16S rRNA gene analysis and recN comparisons the strain was identified as Geobacillus kaustophilus. Cells of the strain, designated A1, were rod-shaped, 2-3 µm long and reacted negatively to Gram staining, despite its taxonomic classification as a Gram positive microorganism. Strain A1 is a thermophilic spore-forming bacterium, and grows optimally at pH 6.5 and 55 °C. An arsenate MIC of 80 mM was determined for strain A1, and the close relative G. kaustophilus DSM 7263(T) showed similar levels of arsenate resistance. These observations were consistent with the presence of arsenic detoxification genes in the genome of G. kaustophilus HTA426. Furthermore, strain A1 growth was not inhibited by 5 mM antimonite and 15 mM arsenite, the highest tested concentrations. This is the first description of arsenic resistance in a Geobacillus strain and supports the hypothesis that members of the genus may have a role in the biogeochemical cycling of arsenic.

High level expression and characterization of a novel thermostable, organic solvent tolerant, 1,3-regioselective lipase from Geobacillus sp. strain ARM.

The mature ARM lipase gene was cloned into the pTrcHis expression vector and over-expressed in Escherichia coli TOP10 host. The optimum lipase expression was obtained after 18 h post induction incubation with 1.0mM IPTG, where the lipase activity was approximately 1623-fold higher than wild type. A rapid, high efficient, one-step purification of the His-tagged recombinant lipase was achieved using immobilized metal affinity chromatography with 63.2% recovery and purification factor of 14.6. The purified lipase was characterized as a high active (7092 U mg(-1)), serine-hydrolase, thermostable, organic solvent tolerant, 1,3-specific lipase with a molecular weight of about 44 kDa. The enzyme was a monomer with disulfide bond(s) in its structure, but was not a metalloenzyme. ARM lipase was active in a broad range of temperature and pH with optimum lipolytic activity at pH 8.0 and 65°C. The enzyme retained 50% residual activity at pH 6.0-7.0, 50°C for more than 150 min.

Arsenate reduction and expression of multiple chromosomal ars operons in Geobacillus kaustophilus A1.

Geobacillus kaustophilus strain A1 was previously isolated from a geothermal environment for its ability to grow in the presence of high arsenate levels. In this study, the molecular mechanisms of arsenate resistance of the strain were investigated. As(V) was reduced to As(III), as shown by HPLC analysis. Consistent with the observation that the micro-organism is not capable of anaerobic growth, no respiratory arsenate reductases were identified. Using specific PCR primers based on the genome sequence of G. kaustophilus HTA426, three unlinked genes encoding detoxifying arsenate reductases were detected in strain A1. These genes were designated arsC1, arsC2 and arsC3. While arsC3 is a monocistronic locus, sequencing of the regions flanking arsC1 and arsC2 revealed the presence of additional genes encoding a putative arsenite transporter and an ArsR-like regulator upstream of each arsenate reductase, indicating the presence of sequences with putative roles in As(V) reduction, As(III) export and arsenic-responsive regulation. RT-PCR demonstrated that both sets of genes were co-transcribed. Furthermore, arsC1 and arsC2, monitored by quantitative real-time RT-PCR, were upregulated in response to As(V), while arsC3 was constitutively expressed at a low level. A mechanism for regulation of As(V) detoxification by Geobacillus that is both consistent with our findings and relevant to the biogeochemical cycle of arsenic and its mobility in the environment is proposed.

Effect of NaOH (caustic wash) on the viability, surface characteristics and adhesion of spores of a Geobacillus sp. isolated from a milk powder production line.

AIM: To investigate the viability, surface characteristics and ability of spores of a Geobacillus sp. isolated from a milk powder production line to adhere to stainless steel surfaces before and after a caustic (NaOH) wash used in clean-in-place regimes. METHODS AND RESULTS: Exposing sessile spores to 1% NaOH at 65°C for 30min decreased spore viability by two orders of magnitude. The zeta potential of the caustic treated spores decreased from -20 to -32 mV and they became more hydrophobic. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that caustic treated spores contained breaks in their spore coat. Under flow conditions, caustic treated spores suspended in 0·1 mol l(-1) KCl were shown to attach to stainless steel in significantly greater numbers (4·6 log(10) CFU cm(-2) ) than untreated spores (3·6 log(10) CFU cm(-2) ). CONCLUSIONS: This research suggests that spores surviving a caustic wash will have a greater propensity to attach to stainless steel surfaces. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY: The practice of recycling caustic wash solutions may increase the risk of contaminating dairy processing surfaces with spores.

Purification and characterization of a thermostable phytate resistant alpha-amylase from Geobacillus sp. LH8.

A thermophilic and amylolytic bacterium (LH8) was isolated from the hot spring of Larijan in Iran at 65 degrees C. Identification of strain LH8 by 16S rDNA sequence analysis showed that LH8 strain belongs to the Geobacillus sp. with 99% sequence similarity with the 16S rDNA of Geobacillus thermodenitrificans. A new alpha-amylase (GA) was extracted from this strain and purified by ion-exchange chromatography. SDS-PAGE showed a single band with an apparent molecular mass of 52kDa. The optimum temperature and pH were 80 degrees C and 5-7, respectively. In the presence of Mn2+, Ca2+, K+, Cr3+ and Al3+, the enzyme activity was stimulated while Mg2+, Ba2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, Fe3+, Cu2+ and EDTA reduced the activity. The K(m) and V(max) values for starch were 3 mg ml(-1) and 6.5 micromol min(-1), respectively. The gene encoding alpha-amylase was isolated and the amino acid sequence was deduced. Comparison of GA and other alpha-amylase amino acid sequences suggested that GA has conserved regions that were previously identified in alpha-amylase family but GA exhibited some substitutions in the sequence. Its phytate resistant is an important property of this enzyme. 5 and 10 mM phytic acid did not inhibit this enzyme. Therefore, features of phytate resistant alpha-amylase from Geobacillus sp. LH8 are discussed.