Association between serum vitamin D level and Graves' disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: This meta-analysis aims to analyze the relationship between serum vitamin D (VD) levels and Graves' disease (GD). METHODS: We conducted a search for publications on VD and GD in the English language. Our search encompassed databases such as PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library, covering publications available through August 2023. A meta-analysis was performed using Cochrane RevMan 5.4 software. The standardized mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were used for outcome calculation. We used R software to test for publication bias. RESULTS: Twelve studies were selected, comprising 937 (22.4%) cases with GD and 3254 (77.6%) controls. The overall meta-analysis revealed that patients with GD are significantly more likely to have low VD levels (SMD = - 0.66; 95% CI: -1.05, - 0.27; p = 0.001) than those in the control group. Egger's test results indicated no publication bias (p = 0.0791). These studies exhibited a high degree of heterogeneity (chi-square = 205.86, p < 0.00001; I2 = 95%). Subgroup analysis was conducted based on assay method, geographic location, and mean age of the case group to explore the heterogeneity sources. Assay methods and geographic locations were identified as potential heterogeneity sources. Based on the mean age, there were no statistically significant differences found in the subgroup analysis of the included studies. CONCLUSION: There is promising evidence that low serum VD levels may increase the risk of GD. Further rigorous and long-term trials are needed to explore the role of VD in the onset and treatment of GD.

Predictive value of bone turnover markers and thyroid indicators for bone metabolism in GD patients after treatment.

Purpose: To investigate the relationship between bone turnover markers (BTMs) and thyroid indicators in Graves' disease (GD) and to further assess predictive value of changes in early stage retrospectively. Methods: We studied 435 patients with GD and 113 healthy physical examiners retrospectively and followed up these two groups of patients after 6 months. We investigated the correlations between BTMs and other 15 observed factors, and analyzed the predictive value of FT3 and FT4 before and after treatment (FT3-P/FT3-A, FT4-P/FT4-A) on whether BTMs recovered. Results: The levels of thyroid hormones and BTMs in GD group were significantly higher than those in control group (P < 0.05) and decreased after 6 months of treatment. FT3, W, Ca and ALP were independent factors in predicting the elevation of OST. Duration of disease, FT3, TSH and ALP were independent factors in predicting the elevation of P1NP. Age, duration of disease, TRAb and ALP were independent factors in predicting the elevation of CTX-1. The AUC of FT3-P/FT3-A and FT4-P/FT4-A for predicting OST recovery were 0.748 and 0.705 (P < 0.05), respectively, and the cut-off values were 0.51 and 0.595. There was no predictive value for P1NP and CTX-1 recovery (P > 0.05). Conclusion: BTMs were abnormally elevated in GD and were significantly correlated with serum levels of FT3, FT4, TRAb, Ca, and ALP. FT3 decreased more than 51% and FT4 dropped more than 59.5% after 6 months of treatment were independent predictors for the recovery of BTMs in GD.

Graves' Disease: Acquired Cause of a Moderate Increase in Hemoglobin A2 Level.

BACKGROUND: Hyperthyroidism can lead to diverse hematological disorders, such as microcytosis and a mild increase in hemoglobin A2 fraction. METHODS: This study reported a 31-year-old woman of Moroccan origin recently diagnosed with Graves' disease. Her blood tests revealed microcytosis, hypochromia, and a normal ferritin level. A phenotypic analysis of hemo-globin was performed using two techniques: capillary electrophoresis and reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS: Both techniques indicated a slight increase in hemoglobin A2 level. These results initially suggested het-erozygous beta-thalassemia, eventually correlating with the concurrent presence of Graves' disease, as evidenced by the normalization of hemoglobin A2 level following treatment. CONCLUSIONS: This case highlights the importance of having clinical, biological, and therapeutic data for a relevant interpretation of a phenotypic hemoglobin study.

Minor hyperthyroidism with normal levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor antibodies: a case report.

The present report describes for the first time a case of diffuse hyperthyroidism in a 30-year-old female patient who had normal levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor antibodies (TSHR-Ab), slightly elevated plasma levels of thyroid hormones, and slightly increased thyroid blood flow. Seven years before, after severe stress, she had Graves' disease with elevated plasma levels of TSHR-Ab. The patient's recent medical history included mental stress and autonomic dysfunction. This report describes a mild form of hyperthyroidism in terms of elevated plasma levels of thyroid hormones and Doppler ultrasonography data; this condition was first defined as 'minor hyperthyroidism'. The examination data suggest a probable secondary role of the immune system and primary role of the autonomic nervous system in the pathogenesis of Graves' disease.

Methylation levels of the IL10 gene in peripheral blood are related to the intractability of Graves' disease.

The prognosis of autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITDs), including Hashimoto's disease (HD) and Graves' disease (GD), is difficult to predict. DNA methylation regulates gene expression of immune mediating factors. Interleukin (IL)-10 is a Th2 cytokine that downregulates inflammatory cytokines produced by Th1 cells. To clarify the role of methylation of the IL10 gene in the prognosis of AITD, we evaluated the methylation levels of two CpG sites in the IL10 promoter using pyrosequencing. The methylation levels of the -185 CpG site of the IL10 gene were related to age and GD intractability in GD patients. Furthermore, the C carrier of the IL10-592 A/C polymorphism was related to low methylation levels of the -185 CpG site. The methylation levels of the IL10-185 CpG site of the IL10 gene were related to the intractability of GD and were lower in individuals with the C allele of the IL10-592 A/C polymorphism.

Risk of recurrence at the time of withdrawal of short- or long-term methimazole therapy in patients with Graves' hyperthyroidism: a randomized trial and a risk-scoring model.

PURPOSE: In Graves' disease, administration of low-dose methimazole for more than 60 months induces higher remission rates compared with the conventional duration of 12-18 months. However, the risk of recurrence and its predictors beyond 48 months of drug withdrawal are not known. The aims of this study were to determine the risk of recurrence during 84 months after withdrawal of short- or long-term methimazole therapy and a risk stratification for recurrence of hyperthyroidism. METHODS: A total of 258 patients were treated with methimazole for a median of 18 months and randomized to discontinuation of the drug(conventional short-term group; n = 128) or continuation of the treatment up to 60-120 months(long-term group; n = 130). Patients were followed for 84 months after methimazole withdrawal. Cox proportional hazards modeling was performed to identify factors associated with relapse and develop a risk-scoring model at the time of discontinuing the treatment. RESULTS: Hyperthyroidism recurred in 67 of 120(56%) of conventionally-treated patients versus 20 of 118(17%) of those who received long-term methimazole treatment, p < 0.001. Age, sex, goiter grade, triiodothyronine, thyrotropin, and thyrotropin receptor antibodies were significant predictors of recurrence in both "conventional" and "long-term" groups but free thyroxine just in the "long-term" group. The risk-scoring model had a good discrimination power (optimism corrected c-index = 0.78,95%CI = 0.73-0.82) with a range of 0-14 and sensitivity of 86% and specificity of 62% at the risk-score of eight. CONCLUSION: A relapse-free state was achieved in 83% of patients with Graves' hyperthyroidism 84 months after cessation of long-term methimazole treatment which could be predicted by some significant predictors in a simple risk-scoring system.

Transition from Hashimoto thyroiditis to Graves's Disease: an unpredictable change?

PURPOSE: Hashimoto thyroiditis and Graves's disease are two related autoimmune disorders, representing the leading causes of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Autoimmune hypothyroidism is generally irreversible but very rarely, some patients would shift to hyperthyroidism. The aim of the study was to seek for possible clinical predictors of the transition from hypo to hyperthyroidism in patients with Hashimoto thyroiditis and to outline their clinical phenotype. METHODS: Twelve patients with overt autoimmune hypothyroidism who had at least one transition from hypothyroidism to autoimmune hyperthyroidism were compared with 294 consecutive patients with autoimmune hypothyroidism and 69 consecutive patients with autoimmune hyperthyroidism that accessed the outpatient clinic over six months. Demographic, hormonal data and autoantibodies titers were compared. RESULTS: Prevalence of smoking habit was significantly higher in switchers compared to controls. Switchers showed a significantly higher prevalence of personal and familial history of non-thyroidal autoimmune disorders. TSH levels were significantly lower in the switcher group during the hypothyroid phase and levothyroxine dose required was lower. TSH concentrations were significantly lower while free fT4 and free fT3 values were higher in GD patients compared to switchers during the hyperthyroid phase despite comparable TRAb levels. Prevalence and type of hyperthyroid symptoms and orbitopathy were similar between switchers and GD group. Mean dose of anti-thyroid drugs was significantly higher in GD patients compared to switchers. No differences were observed in the remission rate from hyperthyroidism between the two groups, despite switchers showed a significantly lower time-to-remission. CONCLUSIONS: Conversion of Hashimoto Thyroiditis towards Graves' disease is a rare phenomenon which can occur almost at any time after the development of autoimmune hypothyroidism. Our findings suggest active surveillance of hypothyroid patients who require frequent reduction of levothyroxine during follow up and testing for TSHR antibodies in these patients.

Pre- and Post-treatment Serum BAFF Levels and BAFF Gene Polymorphisms in Patients with Graves' Disease.

BACKGROUND: B cell activating factor (BAFF), a crucial factor for B cell survival and differentiation, has been linked to several autoimmune conditions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association of BAFF gene's polymorphisms with its serum levels and to assess their effect on Graves' disease (GD) susceptibility and presentation. METHODS: Sixty-two GD patients and 152 healthy controls have been enrolled to investigate BAFF rs9514827 (-2841 T/C), rs1041569 (-2701 T/A) and rs9514828 (-871 C/T) gene's polymorphism by PCR-RFLP and serum BAFF level's kinetics under medical treatment by ELISA. RESULTS: Median serum BAFF level at baseline was significantly higher in GD patients (841.7 pg/ml [685.23-1058.32]) comparatively to controls (495.75 pg/ml [383.17-595.7]), p = 7.29 E-25. A ROC curve was used to assess BAFF performances in GD diagnosis and revealed an AUC of 94.9% [0.919-0.979], p = 7.29 E-25. At a cutoff value of 654.9 pg/ml of BAFF at baseline, the sensitivity and the specificity were, respectively, 83.9% and 90.8%. BAFF level was significantly increased in smoking patients (1079.55 pg/ml [875.35-1203]) comparatively to nonsmokers (746.95 pg/ml [643.2-915.7]), p = 3.1 E-5. While -2841 T/C and -2701 T/A genotypes and alleles frequencies were similar between patients and controls, the -871*T allele was significantly more prevalent in patients (0.613) than in controls (0.477); p = .01, OR [95% CI] = 1.73 [1.13-2.65]. The three studied polymorphisms were not associated with serum BAFF level at baseline. CONCLUSION: Serum BAFF level is significantly increased in GD especially in smoking patients. rs9514828 - 871*T allele might be a susceptibility variant for GD.

Low levels of serum IL-39 are associated with autoimmune thyroid disease.

BACKGROUND: Interleukin (IL)-39 is a novel member of IL-12 cytokine family, but its role in autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD) is unclear. The aim of the present study was to determine serum levels of IL-39 in Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT) and Graves' disease (GD) patients. METHODS: A total of 48 patients with HT, 50 patients with GD, and 45 healthy controls (HCs) were recruited for this study. Levels of serum IL-39 were determined by ELISA. RESULTS: Compared with HC group, levels of serum IL-39 in patients with HT (p < 0.05) and GD (p < 0.01) were drastically reduced. Among patients with HT, serum IL-39 levels had a positive correlation with white blood cell count (WBC) count and free triiodothyronine level. Among patients with GD, the levels of IL-39 in serum were positively correlated with WBC count and C-reactive protein levels. CONCLUSIONS: IL-39 may be a new potential predictor for patients with HT and GD.

A rapid homogenous bioassay for detection of thyroid-stimulating antibodies based on a luminescent cyclic AMP biosensor.

Graves' disease (GD) is an autoimmune disease caused by antibodies to the thyroid stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR). The FDA-cleared Thyretain™ TSI bioassay is a highly specific method to detect thyroid stimulating antibodies (TSAb/TSI) in the blood of patients with autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD), particularly GD. To simplify the workflow of this bioassay and to support a semi-quantitative result, we have generated a stable CHO-K1 cell line expressing both a chimeric TSH receptor (TSHR-Mc4) and a luciferase-based homogeneous cAMP biosensor (GS luciferase). Here, we describe a rapid, real-time, homogenous bioassay (Turbo™ TSI Bioassay) to directly assess the functional activity of TSI and produce results in International Units of IU/L. The Turbo™ TSI bioassay works by measuring changes in the intracellular cAMP level induced by a G-protein coupled receptor (G-PCR) signaling cascade which is triggered by the binding of TSI to the TSHR. Upon binding to cAMP, the GS luciferase reporter is activated through conformational changes and generates light that can be measured in intact cells with a luminometer. The LoD and LoQ of the assay were determined to be 0.016 IU/L and 0.03 IU/L, respectively and the preliminary assay cutoff was determined to be 0.024 IU/L by ROC analysis using the Thyretain™ TSI bioassay results as reference. The analytical performance of the Turbo™ TSI bioassay is comparable to the Thyretain™ TSI bioassay as evidenced by similar EC50 values for a TSHR stimulating monoclonal antibody (M22). The specificity of the Turbo™ TSI bioassay was demonstrated by showing no response to a high concentration of a human monoclonal TSHR blocking antibody (K1-70). The precision of the assay was excellent with an overall within-laboratory precision <15% CV. When testing 198 clinical samples, the positive and negative percent agreement between the Turbo™ TSI and the Thyretain™ TSI bioassays were 98.7% and 93.5%, respectively. While both bioassays yield equivalent analytical and clinical performances, the Turbo™ TSI bioassay is much simpler to perform. It does not require cell culture, sample dilution, washing or cell lysis steps, resulting in a dramatically reduced turnaround time from about 21 h to 60 min. In addition, the same cell line showed its capability of detecting thyroid blocking antibodies (TBAb/TBI) in a competitive format. The Turbo™ TSI bioassay is user-friendly and is a very promising advancement to aid the diagnosis of autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD).

High prevalence of thyroid hormone autoantibody and low rate of thyroid hormone detection interference.

OBJECTIVE: Thyroid hormone autoantibody (THAb) is a common antibody in autoimmune disease and can interfere with the detection of thyroid hormone (TH). There was no research reporting the prevalence of THAb in Chinese and the rate of THAb interfering with TH detection. METHODS: We collected 114 patients with autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) (Hashimoto's thyroiditis, 57 cases; Graves' disease, 57 cases), 106 patients with nonthyroid autoimmune diseases (NTAID), and 120 healthy subjects. According to the presence or absence of thyroid antibodies, patients with NTAID were divided into two groups: NTAID-AITD and NTAID groups. Radioimmunoprecipitation technique was used to detect THAb in all subjects. TH was detected on Abbot and Roche platforms in patients with positive THAb. RESULTS: The prevalence of THAb was 22.8% in Hashimoto's thyroiditis and 45.6% in Graves' disease. The prevalence of THAb in AITD group was lower than that in NTAID or NTAID-AITD groups (34.2% vs. 61.5%, p = 0.014; 34.2% vs. 71.3%, p < 0.01). Among total 98 patients with positive THAb, TH levels of 9 patients were falsely elevated (9.18%). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of THAb in AITD patients was lower than that in NTAID patients. Although THAb had a high frequency in various autoimmune diseases, the prevalence of THAb interfering with TH detection was only 9.18%.

Alteration of the Intestinal Microbial Flora and the Serum IL-17 Level in Patients with Graves' Disease Complicated with Vitamin D Deficiency.

BACKGROUND: Intestinal flora is associated with Graves' disease (GD). This study explored the association of serum 25(OH)D with the diversity of the intestinal flora and serum IL-17 in GD patients. METHODS: Patients newly diagnosed with GD at 2 centers between 2018 and 2021 were consecutively included. According to their 25(OH)D levels, they were divided into the deficiency group, the insufficiency group, and the sufficiency group. Some patients with vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency were randomly selected and were matched with healthy volunteers (normal control [NC]) in terms of sex, age, and case number. The diversity and differential species of the intestinal flora and serum IL-17 levels were compared. RESULTS: Serum 25(OH)D negatively correlated with serum IL-17, the platelet/lymphocyte ratio, and TSH receptor antibody. The diversity of the intestinal flora decreased in the GD group, with noticeable differences in the composition of the intestinal flora when compared with the NC group. At the phylum level, the GD group exhibited a significantly lower abundance of Firmicutes but a higher abundance of Actinobacteria. At the genus level, the GD group exhibited higher relative abundances of Bifidobacterium, Collinsella, and Pediococcus but lower abundances of Roseburia and Dialister. CONCLUSIONS: The changes in the vitamin D level and the composition of the intestinal flora may partially contribute to the development of GD.

Adjuvant Rituximab-Exploratory Trial in Young People With Graves Disease.

CONTEXT: Remission rates in young people with Graves hyperthyroidism are less than 25% after 2 years of thionamide antithyroid drug (ATD). OBJECTIVE: We explored whether rituximab (RTX), a B-lymphocyte-depleting agent, would increase remission rates when administered with a short course of ATD. METHODS: This was an open-label, multicenter, single-arm, phase 2 trial in young people (ages, 12-20 years) with Graves hyperthyroidism. An A'Hern design was used to distinguish an encouraging remission rate (40%) from an unacceptable rate (20%). Participants presenting with Graves hyperthyroidism received 500 mg RTX and 12 months of ATD titrated according to thyroid function. ATDs were stopped after 12 months and primary outcome assessed at 24 months. Participants had relapsed at 24 months if thyrotropin was suppressed and free 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine was raised; they had received ATD between months 12 and 24; or they had thyroid surgery/radioiodine. RESULTS: A total of 27 participants were recruited and completed the trial with no serious side effects linked to treatment. Daily carbimazole dose at 12 months was less than 5 mg in 21 of 27 participants. Thirteen of 27 participants were in remission at 24 months (48%, 90% one-sided CI, 35%-100%); this exceeded the critical value (9) for the A'Hern design and provided evidence of a promising remission rate. B-lymphocyte count at 28 weeks, expressed as a percentage of baseline, was related to likelihood of remission. CONCLUSION: Adjuvant RTX, administered with a 12-month course of ATD, may increase the likelihood of remission in young people with Graves hyperthyroidism. A randomized trial of adjuvant RTX in young people with Graves hyperthyroidism is warranted.

Graves' Autoantibodies Exhibit Different Stimulating Activities in Cultures of Thyrocytes and Orbital Fibroblasts Not Reflected by Clinical Assays.

Background: The pathogenesis of Graves' hyperthyroidism (GH) and associated Graves' orbitopathy (GO) appears to involve stimulatory autoantibodies (thyrotropin receptor [TSHR]-stimulating antibodies [TSAbs]) that bind to and activate TSHRs on thyrocytes and orbital fibroblasts. In general, measurement of circulating TSHR antibodies by clinical assays correlates with the status of GH and GO. However, most clinical measurements of TSHR antibodies use competitive binding assays that do not distinguish between TSAbs and antibodies that bind to but do not activate TSHRs. Moreover, clinical assays for TSAbs measure stimulation of only one signaling pathway, the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-protein kinase A (PKA) pathway, in engineered cells that are not thyrocytes or orbital fibroblasts. We determined whether measuring TSAbs by a cAMP-PKA readout in engineered cells accurately reveals the efficacies of stimulation by these antibodies on thyrocytes and orbital fibroblasts. Methods: We measured TSAb stimulation of normal human thyrocytes and orbital fibroblasts from patients with GO in primary cultures in vitro. In thyrocytes, we measured secretion of thyroglobulin (TG) and in orbital fibroblasts secretion of hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid [HA]). We also measured stimulation of cAMP production in engineered TSHR-expressing cells in an assay similar to clinical assays. Furthermore, we determined whether there were differences in stimulation of thyrocytes and orbital fibroblasts by TSAbs from patients with GH alone versus from patients with GO understanding that patients with GO have accompanying GH. Results: We found a positive correlation between TSAb stimulation of cAMP production in engineered cells and TG secretion by thyrocytes as well as HA secretion by orbital fibroblasts. However, TSAbs from GH patients stimulated thyrocytes more effectively than TSAbs from GO patients, whereas TSAbs from GO patients were more effective in activating orbital fibroblasts than TSAbs from GH patients. Conclusions: Clinical assays of stimulation by TSAbs measuring activation of the cAMP-PKA pathway do correlate with stimulation of thyrocytes and orbital fibroblasts; however, they do not distinguish between TSAbs from GH and GO patients. In vitro, TSAbs exhibit selectivity in activating TSHRs since TSAbs from GO patients were more effective in stimulating orbital fibroblasts and TSAbs from GH patients were more effective in stimulating thyrocytes.

Low serum interleukin-38 levels in patients with Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis.

BACKGROUND: Autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) mainly includes Graves' disease (GD) and Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT), which is caused by individual genetics, autoimmune dysfunction, and a variety of external environmental factors. Interleukin (IL)-38 is involved in a wide range of autoimmune diseases, but little is known about IL-38 expression in AITD. METHODS: Fifty patients with GD, 50 with HT, and 50 healthy controls (HC) were enrolled in this study. Basic information of the participants was obtained through a physical examination. Immunological data were obtained by an automatic chemiluminescence immunoanalyzer. C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations and the white blood cell count were measured. Serum IL-38 levels were determined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS: Serum IL-38 levels were significantly lower in the GD and HT groups than in the HC group (both p < 0.01). Serum CRP concentrations were significantly lower in the HT group than in the HC group (p < 0.05). Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed that the area under the curve was 0.7736 (p < 0.01) for IL-38 and 0.7972 (p < 0.01) for IL-38 combined with CRP in the GD group. In the HT group, the area under the curve was 0.7276 (p < 0.01) for IL-38 and 0.7300 for IL-38 combined with CRP (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that serum IL-38 level is a potential new diagnostic biomarker in patients with GD and HT.

Circulating Exosome Involves in the Pathogenesis of Autoimmune Thyroid Diseases Through Immunomodulatory Proteins.

Autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITDs) are chronic organ-specific autoimmune diseases, mainly including Graves' disease (GD) and Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT). Exosomes, as extracellular vesicles, contain a variety of biologically active substances that play a role in information exchange, thereby affecting the occurrence and progression of diseases. However, it is unclear whether exosomes are involved in the pathogenesis of AITDs. In this study, the role of exosomes in AITDs was explored from a proteomics perspective. Plasma exosomes were isolated from 12 patients with GD, 10 patients with HT, and seven normal controls (NC). Protein profiles were detected using the data-independent acquisition (DIA) method and analyzed to investigate changes in plasma exosome proteins. In the setting of GD, 11 proteins were upregulated while 197 proteins were downregulated compared with healthy people. Among them, MAP1S (log2 FC = 4.669, p = 0.009) and VAMP8 (log2 FC = 3.216, p = 0.003) were the most significantly upregulated, and RSU1 (log2 FC = -6.797, p = 0.001), ACTB (log2 FC = -4.795, p < 0.001), and CXCL7 (log2 FC = -4.674, p < 0.001) were the most significantly downregulated. In the cases of HT, HGFL (log2 FC = 2.766, p = 0.001), FAK1 (log2 FC = 2.213, p < 0.001), and PTN12 (log2 FC = 1.624, p < 0.001) were significantly upregulated, while PSMF1 (log2 FC = -3.591, p < 0.001), PXL2B (log2 FC = -2.622, p = 0.001), and CYTM (log2 FC = -1.609, p < 0.001) were the most downregulated. These differential proteins were mainly enriched in the immune system and metabolic system, indicating that plasma exosomes may play an important role in systemic immune imbalance in AITDs.

Expression of Circulating Rennin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone-Related microRNAs in Patients with Thyrotoxic Heart Disease.

Thyrotoxic heart disease (THD) is a common and severe complication of hyperthyroidism and the etiology of this complication remains poorly understood. Activation of the rennin-angiotensin- aldosterone system by excess thyroxin is one of the major factors that contribute to the pathogenesis of THD. Several microRNAs such as miR-21, miR-155, miR-208a, and miR-499 are closely related to the rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and therefore should be involved in this process. Our study intends to explore whether these miRNAs are involved in the pathogenesis of THD, and if these miRNAs could be secreted into the circulation and serve as sentinel indicators for THD. Though there is a trend of elevation of miR- 155 in THD than in simple hyperthyroidism patients, we did not find statistically significant differences in the expression of these miRNAs in the blood of THD patients, but we found that miR-155 was significantly up-regulated in patients with Graves' disease with or without THD in comparison with healthy controls. Thus, miR-155 can serve as a novel biomarker for Graves' disease and can play important roles in pathogenesis of Graves' disease.

Possible interplay between estrogen and the BAFF may modify thyroid activity in Graves' disease.

A link between sex hormones and B-cell activating factor (BAFF), a crucial immunoregulator of autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD), may exist. The study aimed to elucidate the role of estrogen (E2) in regulating BAFF in Graves' disease (GD). In clinical samples, serum BAFF levels were higher in women than in men in both the GD and control groups. serum BAFF levels were associated with thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor antibody levels and thyroid function only in women and not in men. BAFF transcripts in peripheral blood mononuclear cells were higher in women with GD than those in the control group. Among GD patients with the AA genotype of rs2893321, women had higher BAFF transcripts and protein levels than men. In the progression of a spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis (SAT) murine model, NOD.H-2h4, serum free thyroxine and BAFF levels were higher in female than in male mice. Moreover, exogenous E2 treatment increased serum BAFF levels in male SAT mice. Meanwhile, female SAT mice exhibited higher thyroid BAFF transcripts levels than either the E2-treated or untreated male SAT mouse groups. Our results showed that E2 might be implicated in modulating BAFF expression, and support a possible mechanism for the higher incidence of AITD in women.

[Characterization of children born to mothers with Graves' disease]. / Caracterización de recién nacidos hijos de madres portadoras de enfermedad de Graves.

INTRODUCTION: Neonatal hyperthyroidism is a disease that can cause mortality and sequelae. To date, there is no clinical series of cases that allows us to know the local reality of this condition. OBJECTIVE: to charac terize the children of mothers with Graves' disease (GD) from a clinical and biochemical point of view. SUBJECTS AND METHOD: A prospective follow-up of all newborns (NB) of mothers with history of GD was performed in two public hospitals in Santiago, during 5 years. Clinical and laboratory variables of mother-child pairs and thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor antibodies (TRAbs) le vels were analyzed looking for associations between these variables and the development of neonatal hyperthyroidism. RESULTS: Seventy-six mother-child pairs were included (0.2% of all deliveries). Five neonates (6.6%) presented biochemical hyperthyroidism, and 3 of them developed clinical disease and required treatment. All 5 NBs who developed hyperthyroidism had mothers with positive or indeterminate TRAbs. No child of TRAbs-negative mothers developed the disease. TRAbs could be determined in only 65% of the mothers and 72% of the NBs. There was a significant correlation bet ween maternal TRAbs titers (p < 0.03), neonatal TRAbs titers (p < 0.008), and neonatal TSH between days 2-6 (p < 0.006), with the subsequent development of hyperthyroidism. All cases of neonatal hyperthyroidism were transient. There was no mortality in our series. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first national case series of children of mothers with GD. Maternal and neonatal TRAbs and TSH between days 2-6 of life were predictors of neonatal hyperthyroidism.

Case Report: A Rare Case of Coexisting of Autoimmune Polyglandular Syndrome Type 3 and Isolated Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Deficiency.

APS (autoimmune polyglandular syndrome) is defined as the coexistence of at least two kinds of endocrine autoimmune diseases. APS type 3 comprises autoimmune thyroid diseases and other autoimmune diseases but does not involve autoimmune Addison's disease. So far, APS-3 combined with isolated gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) reduction caused by the suspected autoimmune hypothalamic disease has not been reported. We recently received a 43-year-old woman with a one-year history of Graves' disease (GD) and a four-month history of type 1 diabetes presented with hyperthyroidism and hyperglycemia. After the GnRH stimulation test, she was diagnosed with secondary amenorrhea attributed to suspected autoimmune Hypothalamitis and APS type 3 associated with Graves' disease and Latent Autoimmune Diabetes (LADA). According to this case, the hypothalamus cannot be spared from the general autoimmune process. It is recommended to carry out the GnRH stimulation test when encountering APS patients combined with secondary amenorrhea.