Cost-effectiveness of village health worker-led integrated community case management (iCCM) versus health facility based management for childhood illnesses in rural southwestern Uganda.

BACKGROUND: In Uganda, village health workers (VHWs) manage childhood illness under the integrated community case management (iCCM) strategy. Care is provided for malaria, pneumonia, and diarrhoea in a community setting. Currently, there is limited evidence on the cost-effectiveness of iCCM in comparison to health facility-based management for childhood illnesses. This study examined the cost-effectiveness of the management of childhood illness using the VHW-led iCCM against health facility-based services in rural south-western Uganda. METHODS: Data on the costs and effectiveness of VHW-led iCCM versus health facility-based services for the management of childhood illness was collected in one sub-county in rural southwestern Uganda. Costing was performed using the ingredients approach. Effectiveness was measured as the number of under-five children appropriately treated. The Incremental Cost-Effectiveness Ratio (ICER) was calculated from the provider perspective. RESULTS: Based on the decision model for this study, the cost for 100 children treated was US$628.27 under the VHW led iCCM and US$87.19 for the health facility based services, while the effectiveness was 77 and 71 children treated for VHW led iCCM and health facility-based services, respectively. An ICER of US$6.67 per under five-year child treated appropriately for malaria, pneumonia and diarrhoea was derived for the provider perspective. CONCLUSION: The health facility based services are less costly when compared to the VHW led iCCM per child treated appropriately. The VHW led iCCM was however more effective with regard to the number of children treated appropriately for malaria, pneumonia and diarrhoea. Considering the public health expenditure per capita for Uganda as the willingness to pay threshold, VHW led iCCM is a cost-effective strategy. VHW led iCCM should, therefore, be enhanced and sustained as an option to complement the health facility-based services for treatment of childhood illness in rural contexts.

Can performance-based financing improve efficiency of health centers in Ethiopia? A Malmquist Productivity Index analysis.

INTRODUCTION: The Ethiopian government has introduced several healthcare financing reforms intending to improve efficiency. Piloting implementation of performance-based financing is one of these actions. The purpose of this research is to assess the efficiency of healthcare facilities that have implemented performance-based financing compared to those that have not. METHODS: Efficiency was measured using a nonparametric data envelopment analysis and the Malmquist Productivity Index technique. Total factor productivity change, technical change, and technological change are compared across eight sampled healthcare facilities that are implementing performance-based financing and eight that are not in Ethiopia. RESULTS: Health facilities implementing performance-based financing have a mean technical efficiency score of 64%, allowing for a potential 36% reduction in inputs without affecting outputs. Their scale efficiency is 88%, indicating a potential 12% increase in total outputs without expanding facilities. In contrast, facilities not implementing performance-based financing have a mean technical efficiency score of 62%, with a potential for 38% input reduction without affecting outputs. Their scale efficiency is 87%, suggesting a potential 13% increase in total outputs without scaling up facilities. Among the 16 healthcare facilities observed, seven experienced a decline in the mean total productivity, while one remained stagnant. The remaining eight facilities witnessed an increase in productivity. The healthcare facilities implementing performance-based financing showed a 1.3% decrease in mean total productivity during the observed period. Among them, five showed an increase and three showed a decrease in the total factor of productivity. The mean total factor of productivity of all healthcare facilities not implementing performance-based financing remained stagnant over the three-year period (2019-2021), with four showing an increase and four showing a decrease in total productivity. CONCLUSIONS: The study concludes that implementing performance-based financing did not improve productivity levels among healthcare facilities over three years. In fact, productivity decreased among the facilities implementing performance-based financing, while those not implementing it remained stagnant. This shows health facilities that implement performance-based financing tend to utilize more resources for similar outputs, contradicting the anticipated efficiency improvement.

Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of community-based directly observed treatment (DOT) versus health facility-based DOT of tuberculosis in Africa: protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis (TB) remains a significant global health challenge, especially prevalent in the WHO African region. The WHO's End TB Strategy emphasises effective treatment approaches such as directly observed therapy (DOT), yet the optimal implementation of DOT, whether through health facility-based (HF DOT) or community-based (CB DOT) approaches, remains uncertain. OBJECTIVE: To conduct a systematic comparison of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of Community-Based Directly Observed Treatment (CB DOT) versus Health Facility-Based Directly Observed Treatment (HF DOT) for tuberculosis (TB) treatment in African settings. METHODS: We will conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols guidelines. We will search PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus and the Cochrane Library for articles published up to 30 March 2023, without date restrictions. Eligible studies must be full economic evaluations conducted in African countries, comparing CB DOT to HF DOT regarding treatment outcomes and costs. Exclusion criteria include non-English, non-peer-reviewed or studies lacking caregiver involvement in CB DOT, health facility-based DOT comparison, direct comparability between CB DOT and HF DOT, significant selection bias or non-economic evaluations. Data extraction will be performed independently by reviewers, and meta-analyses will use STATA software. To pool the data, a random-effect model will be applied, and quality assessment of the studies will be conducted. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethical approval is not required as the study will use previously published articles available publicly. Findings will be presented at international and national conferences and published in open-access, peer-reviewed journals. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42023443260.

Reducing Hospitalizations and Multidrug-Resistant Organisms via Regional Decolonization in Hospitals and Nursing Homes.

Importance: Infections due to multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs) are associated with increased morbidity, mortality, length of hospitalization, and health care costs. Regional interventions may be advantageous in mitigating MDROs and associated infections. Objective: To evaluate whether implementation of a decolonization collaborative is associated with reduced regional MDRO prevalence, incident clinical cultures, infection-related hospitalizations, costs, and deaths. Design, Setting, and Participants: This quality improvement study was conducted from July 1, 2017, to July 31, 2019, across 35 health care facilities in Orange County, California. Exposures: Chlorhexidine bathing and nasal iodophor antisepsis for residents in long-term care and hospitalized patients in contact precautions (CP). Main Outcomes and Measures: Baseline and end of intervention MDRO point prevalence among participating facilities; incident MDRO (nonscreening) clinical cultures among participating and nonparticipating facilities; and infection-related hospitalizations and associated costs and deaths among residents in participating and nonparticipating nursing homes (NHs). Results: Thirty-five facilities (16 hospitals, 16 NHs, 3 long-term acute care hospitals [LTACHs]) adopted the intervention. Comparing decolonization with baseline periods among participating facilities, the mean (SD) MDRO prevalence decreased from 63.9% (12.2%) to 49.9% (11.3%) among NHs, from 80.0% (7.2%) to 53.3% (13.3%) among LTACHs (odds ratio [OR] for NHs and LTACHs, 0.48; 95% CI, 0.40-0.57), and from 64.1% (8.5%) to 55.4% (13.8%) (OR, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.60-0.93) among hospitalized patients in CP. When comparing decolonization with baseline among NHs, the mean (SD) monthly incident MDRO clinical cultures changed from 2.7 (1.9) to 1.7 (1.1) among participating NHs, from 1.7 (1.4) to 1.5 (1.1) among nonparticipating NHs (group × period interaction reduction, 30.4%; 95% CI, 16.4%-42.1%), from 25.5 (18.6) to 25.0 (15.9) among participating hospitals, from 12.5 (10.1) to 14.3 (10.2) among nonparticipating hospitals (group × period interaction reduction, 12.9%; 95% CI, 3.3%-21.5%), and from 14.8 (8.6) to 8.2 (6.1) among LTACHs (all facilities participating; 22.5% reduction; 95% CI, 4.4%-37.1%). For NHs, the rate of infection-related hospitalizations per 1000 resident-days changed from 2.31 during baseline to 1.94 during intervention among participating NHs, and from 1.90 to 2.03 among nonparticipating NHs (group × period interaction reduction, 26.7%; 95% CI, 19.0%-34.5%). Associated hospitalization costs per 1000 resident-days changed from $64 651 to $55 149 among participating NHs and from $55 151 to $59 327 among nonparticipating NHs (group × period interaction reduction, 26.8%; 95% CI, 26.7%-26.9%). Associated hospitalization deaths per 1000 resident-days changed from 0.29 to 0.25 among participating NHs and from 0.23 to 0.24 among nonparticipating NHs (group × period interaction reduction, 23.7%; 95% CI, 4.5%-43.0%). Conclusions and Relevance: A regional collaborative involving universal decolonization in long-term care facilities and targeted decolonization among hospital patients in CP was associated with lower MDRO carriage, infections, hospitalizations, costs, and deaths.

Cost-effectiveness of running a paediatric oncology unit in Ethiopia.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the cost-effectiveness of running a paediatric oncology unit in Ethiopia to inform the revision of the Ethiopia Essential Health Service Package (EEHSP), which ranks the treatment of childhood cancers at a low and medium priority. METHODS: We built a decision analytical model-a decision tree-to estimate the cost-effectiveness of running a paediatric oncology unit compared with a do-nothing scenario (no paediatric oncology care) from a healthcare provider perspective. We used the recently (2018-2019) conducted costing estimate for running the paediatric oncology unit at Tikur Anbessa Specialized Hospital (TASH) and employed a mixed costing approach (top-down and bottom-up). We used data on health outcomes from other studies in similar settings to estimate the disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) averted of running a paediatric oncology unit compared with a do-nothing scenario over a lifetime horizon. Both costs and effects were discounted (3%) to the present value. The primary outcome was incremental cost in US dollars (USDs) per DALY averted, and we used a willingness-to-pay (WTP) threshold of 50% of the Ethiopian gross domestic product per capita (USD 477 in 2019). Uncertainty was tested using one-way and probabilistic sensitivity analyses. RESULTS: The incremental cost and DALYs averted per child treated in the paediatric oncology unit at TASH were USD 876 and 2.4, respectively, compared with no paediatric oncology care. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of running a paediatric oncology unit was USD 361 per DALY averted, and it was cost-effective in 90% of 100 000 Monte Carlo iterations at a USD 477 WTP threshold. CONCLUSIONS: The provision of paediatric cancer services using a specialised oncology unit is most likely cost-effective in Ethiopia, at least for easily treatable cancer types in centres with minimal to moderate capability. We recommend reassessing the priority-level decision of childhood cancer treatment in the current EEHSP.

Salve Lucrum: The Existential Threat of Greed in US Health Care.

In this Viewpoint, Donald Berwick explores the pursuit of profit in US health care across sectors­such as pharmaceutical companies, insurers, hospitals, and physician practices­and its harms to patients, and then offers potential solutions.

Health system costs and days in hospital for colorectal cancer patients in New South Wales, Australia.

INTRODUCTION: Colorectal cancer (CRC) care costs the Australian healthcare system more than any other cancer. We estimated costs and days in hospital for CRC cases, stratified by site (colon/rectal cancer) and disease stage, to inform detailed analyses of CRC-related healthcare. METHODS: Incident CRC patients were identified using the Australian 45 and Up Study cohort linked with cancer registry records. We analysed linked hospital admission records, emergency department records, and reimbursement records for government-subsidised medical services and prescription medicines. Cases' health system costs (2020 Australian dollars) and hospital days were compared with those for cancer-free controls (matched by age, sex, geography, smoking) to estimate excess resources by phase of care, analysed by sociodemographic, health, and disease characteristics. RESULTS: 1200 colon and 546 rectal cancer cases were diagnosed 2006-2013, and followed up to June 2016. Eighty-nine percent of cases had surgery, chemotherapy or radiotherapy, and excess costs were predominantly for hospitalisations. Initial phase (12 months post-diagnosis) mean excess health system costs were $50,434 for colon and $60,877 for rectal cancer cases, with means of 16 and 18.5 excess hospital days, respectively. The annual continuing mean excess costs were $6,779 (colon) and $8,336 (rectal), with a mean of 2 excess hospital days each. Resources utilised (costs and days) in these phases increased with more advanced disease, comorbidities, and younger age. Mean excess costs in the year before death were $74,952 (colon) and $67,733 (rectal), with means of 34 and 30 excess hospital days, respectively-resources utilised were similar across all characteristics, apart from lower costs for cases aged ≥75 at diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Health system costs and hospital utilisation for CRC care are greater for people with more advanced disease. These findings provide a benchmark, and will help inform future cost-effectiveness analyses of potential approaches to CRC screening and treatment.

Long-term neurological and healthcare burden of adults with Japanese encephalitis: A nationwide study 2000-2015.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the healthcare utilization, economic burden, and long-term neurological complications and mortality of an adult population with Japanese encephalitis (JE). METHODS: This study utilized two nationwide datasets in Taiwan: the Notifiable Disease Dataset of confirmed cases from the Centers for Disease Control to identify JE patients, and the National Health Insurance Research Database to obtain patients' healthcare utilization. Survival analyses were performed to identify prognostic factors associated with the all-cause mortality of patients. RESULTS: This study included 352 adult cases with JE (aged≥20 years). The mean age of JE patients was 45 years. Stroke (event rate: 3.49/100 person-years) was the most common neurological complication, followed by epilepsy/convulsions (3.13/100 person-years), encephalopathy/delirium (2.20/100 person-years), and parkinsonism (1.97/100 person-years). Among the 336 hospitalized patients at JE diagnosis, 58.33% required intensive care. Among 79 patients who died following JE diagnosis, 48.84% of death events occurred within the year of diagnosis. The medical costs increased considerably at JE diagnosis and subsequent-year costs remained significantly higher than the costs before diagnosis (p<0.05). Having a four-dose JE vaccination (i.e., born after 1976) versus no JE vaccination history (i.e., born before 1963) was significantly associated with lower all-cause mortality (hazard ratio: 0.221 [95% confidence interval: 0.067, 0.725]). Comorbid diabetes and incident epilepsy/convulsion events significantly increased the mortality risk by 2.47- and 1.85-fold, respectively (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: A considerable medical burden associated with JE was observed in affected adults, even in the years following JE diagnosis. Vaccination should be considered to prevent this sporadic, but lethal, viral infection.

How Different Motivations for Making Informal Out-Of-Pocket Payments Vary in Their Influence on Users' Satisfaction with Healthcare, Local and National Government, and Satisfaction with Life?

BACKGROUND: The dominant view in the literature is that informal payments in healthcare universally are a negative phenomenon. By contrast, we theorize that the motivation healthcare users for making informal payments (IP) can be classified into three categories: (1) a cultural norm, (2) "grease the wheels" payments if users offered to pay to get better services, and (3) "sand the wheels" payments if users were asked to pay by healthcare personnel or felt that payments were expected. We further hypothesize that these three categories of payments are differently associated with a user's outcomes, namely, satisfaction with healthcare, local and national government, satisfaction with life, and satisfaction with life of children in the future. METHODS: We used microdata from the 2016 Life-in-Transition survey. Multivariate regression analysis is used to quantify relationships between these categories of payments and users' outcomes. RESULTS: Payments that are the result of cultural norms are associated with better outcomes. On the contrary, "sand the wheel" payments are associated with worse outcomes. We find no association between making "grease the wheels" payments and outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first paper which evaluates association between three different categories of informal payments with a wide range of users' outcomes on a diverse sample of countries. Focusing on informal payments in general, rather than explicitly examining specific motivations, obscures the true outcomes of making IP. It is important to distinguish between three different motivations for informal payment, namely, cultural norms, "grease the wheels," and "sand the wheels" since they have varying associations with user outcomes. From a policy making standpoint, variation in the links between different motivations for making IP and measures of satisfaction suggest that decision-makers should put their primary focus on situations where IP are explicitly asked for or are implied by the situation and that they should differentiate this from cases of gratitude payments. If such measures are not implemented, then policy makers may unintentionally ban the behaviour that is linked with increased satisfaction with healthcare, government, and life (i.e., paying gratitude).

Cost-effectiveness of uterine balloon tamponade devices in managing atonic post-partum hemorrhage at public health facilities in India.

OBJECTIVE: Post-partum hemorrhage (PPH) is the leading direct cause of maternal mortality in India. Uterine balloon tamponade (UBT) is recommended for atonic PPH cases not responding to uterotonics. This study assessed cost-effectiveness of three UBT devices used in Indian public health settings. METHODS: A decision tree model was built to assess cost-effectiveness of Bakri-UBT and low-cost ESM-UBT alternatives as compared to the recommended standard of care i.e. condom-UBT intervention. A hypothetical annual cohort of women eligible for UBT intervention after experiencing atonic PPH in Indian public health facilities were evaluated for associated costs and outcomes over life-time horizon using a disaggregated societal perspective. Costs by undertaking primary costing and clinical parameters from published literature were used. Incremental cost per Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY) averted, number of surgeries and maternal deaths with the interventions were estimated. An India specific willingness to pay threshold of INR 24,211 (USD 375) was used to evaluate cost-effectiveness. Detailed sensitivity analysis and expected value of information analysis was undertaken. RESULTS: ESM-UBT at base-case Incremental Cost-Effectiveness Ratio (ICER) of INR -2,412 (USD 37) per DALY averted is a cost-saving intervention i.e. is less expensive and more effective as compared to condom-UBT. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis however shows an error probability of 0.36, indicating a degree of uncertainty around model results. Bakri-UBT at an ICER value of INR -126,219 (USD -1,957) per DALY averted incurs higher incremental societal costs and is less effective as compared to condom-UBT. Hence, Bakri-UBT is not cost-effective. CONCLUSION: For atonic PPH management in India, condom-UBT offers better value as compared to Bakri-UBT. Given the limited clinical effectiveness evidence and uncertainty in sensitivity analysis, cost-saving result for ESM-UBT must be considered with caution. Future research may focus on generating high quality comparative clinical evidence for UBT devices to facilitate policy decision making.

The Role of Trust in the Pattern of Enrollment to a Social Health Insurance Scheme and Distribution of Healthcare Facilities in Ibadan, Southwest Nigeria.

The National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) of Nigeria established in the year 2005 aims to minimize the inequity of access to quality healthcare services in Nigeria. As of the year 2017, enrollment in NHIS-accredited facilities in the southwest region of Nigeria was significantly clustered, with more than three-quarters of NHIS enrollees registered with only 10% of the available NHIS-accredited facilities in the six states of the region. This study explored the factors associated with the skewed distribution of enrollees across facilities and the influence of stakeholders. This is a descriptive, qualitative, case study design among stakeholders of the NHIS in Ibadan, Oyo State, Southwest, Nigeria. In-depth interviews were conducted between March and June, 2019, with all selected individual stakeholders as listed earlier. Data analysis was done using an inductive thematic approach. Across the board, there was a low level of trust in government and government policies among healthcare providers and enrollees. Few healthcare providers were willing to render services under the scheme at inception. The majority of the enrollees were compelled to register with the few available healthcare providers. Among the enrollees, a few personally chose healthcare facilities and providers that were perceived to render better quality services to receive care. Priority should be given to building trust among stakeholders in the NHIS as this would facilitate cooperation and better working relationship, and reposition the scheme for better performance.

Health and economic burden estimates of snakebite management upon health facilities in three regions of southern Burkina Faso.

BACKGROUND: Snakebite has become better recognized as a significant cause of death and disability in Sub-Saharan Africa, but the health economic consequences to victims and health infrastructures serving them remain poorly understood. This information gap is important as it provides an evidence-base guiding national and international health policy decision making on the most cost-effective interventions to better manage snakebite. Here, we assessed hospital-based data to estimate the health economic burden of snakebite in three regions of Burkina Faso (Centre-Ouest, Hauts Bassins and Sud-Ouest). METHODOLOGY: Primary data of snakebite victims admitted to regional and district health facilities (eg, number of admissions, mortality, hospital bed days occupied) was collected in three regions over 17 months in 2013/14. The health burden of snakebite was assessed using Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) calculations based upon hospitalisation, mortality and disability data from admitted patients amongst other inputs from secondary sources (eg, populations, life-expectancy and age-weighting constants). An activity-based costing approach to determine the direct cost of snake envenoming included unit costs of clinical staff wages, antivenom, supportive care and equipment extracted from context-relevant literature. FINDINGS: The 10,165 snakebite victims admitted to hospital occupied 28,164 hospital bed days over 17 months. The annual rate of hospitalisation and mortality of admitted snakebite victims was 173 and 1.39/100,000 population, respectively. The estimated annual (i) DALYs lost was 2,153 (0.52/1,000) and (ii) cost to hospitals was USD 506,413 (USD 49/hospitalisation) in these three regions of Burkina Faso. These costs appeared to be influenced by the number of patients receiving antivenom (10.90% in total) in each area (highest in Sud-Ouest) and the type of health facility. CONCLUSION: The economic burden of snake envenoming is primarily shouldered by the rural health centres closest to snakebite victims-facilities that are typically least well equipped or resourced to manage this burden. Our study highlights the need for more research in other regions/countries to demonstrate the burden of snakebite and the socioeconomic benefits of its management. This evidence can guide the most cost-effective intervention from government and development partners to meet the snakebite-management needs of rural communities and their health centres.

Characteristics and limitations of national antimicrobial surveillance according to sales and claims data.

PURPOSE: Antimicrobial use (AMU) is estimated at the national level by using sales data (S-AMU) or insurance claims data (C-AMU). However, these data might be biased by generic drugs that are not sold through wholesalers (direct sales) and therefore not recorded in sales databases, or by claims that are not submitted electronically and therefore not stored in claims databases. We evaluated these effects by comparing S-AMU and C-AMU to ascertain the characteristics and limitations of each kind of data. We also evaluated the interchangeability of these data by assessing their relationship. METHODS: We calculated monthly defined daily doses per 1,000 inhabitants per day (DID) using sales and claims data from 2013 to 2017. To assess the effects of non-electronic claim submissions on C-AMU, we evaluated trends in the S-AMU/C-AMU ratio (SCR). To assess the effects of direct sales of S-AMU, we divided AMU into generic and branded drugs and evaluated each SCR in terms of oral versus parenteral drugs. To assess the relationship between S-AMU and C-AMU, we created a linear regression and evaluated its coefficient. RESULTS: Median annual SCRs from 2013 to 2017 were 1.046, 0.993, 0.980, 0.987, and 0.967, respectively. SCRs dropped from 2013 to 2015, and then stabilized. Differences in SCRs between branded and generic drugs were significant for oral drugs (0.820 vs 1.079) but not parenteral drugs (1.200 vs 1.165), suggesting that direct sales of oral generic drugs were omitted in S-AMU. Coefficients of DID between S-AMU and C-AMU were high (generic, 0.90; branded, 0.84) in oral drugs but relatively low (generic, 0.32; branded, 0.52) in parenteral drugs. CONCLUSIONS: The omission of direct sales information and non-electronically submitted claims have influenced S-AMU and C-AMU information, respectively. However, these data were well-correlated, and it is considered that both kinds of data are useful depending on the situation.

Empanelment of health care facilities under Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB PM-JAY) in India.

INTRODUCTION: India's Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY) is the world's largest health assurance scheme providing health cover of 500,000 INR (about USD 6,800) per family per year. It provides financial support for secondary and tertiary care hospitalization expenses to about 500 million of India's poorest households through various insurance models with care delivered by public and private empanelled providers. This study undertook to describe the provider empanelment of PM-JAY, a key element of its functioning and determinant of its impact. METHODS: We carried out secondary analysis of cross-sectional administrative program data publicly available in PM-JAY portal for 30 Indian states and 06 UTs. We analysed the state wise distribution, type and sector of empanelled hospitals and services offered through PM-JAY scheme across all the states and UTs. RESULTS: We found that out of the total facilities empanelled (N = 20,257) under the scheme in 2020, more than half (N = 11,367, 56%) were in the public sector, while 8,157 (40%) facilities were private for profit, and 733 (4%) were private not for profit entities. State wise distribution of hospitals showed that five states (Karnataka (N = 2,996, 14.9%), Gujarat (N = 2,672, 13.3%), Uttar Pradesh (N = 2,627, 13%), Tamil Nadu (N = 2315, 11.5%) and Rajasthan (N = 2,093 facilities, 10.4%) contributed to more than 60% of empanelled PMJAY facilities: We also observed that 40% of facilities were offering between two and five specialties while 14% of empanelled hospitals provided 21-24 specialties. CONCLUSION: A majority of the hospital empanelled under the scheme are in states with previous experience of implementing publicly funded health insurance schemes, with the exception of Uttar Pradesh. Reasons underlying these patterns of empanelment as well as the impact of empanelment on service access, utilisation, population health and financial risk protection warrant further study. While the inclusion and regulation of the private sector is a goal that may be served by empanelment, the role of public sector remains critical, particularly in underserved areas of India.

The economic burden of diarrhea in children under 5 years in Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: Diarrhea is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among under-five children in Bangladesh. Hospitalization for diarrhea can pose a significant burden on households and health systems. The aim of this study was to estimate the cost of illness due to diarrhea from the healthcare facility, caregiver, and societal perspectives in Bangladesh. METHOD: A cross-sectional study with an ingredient-based costing approach was conducted in 48 healthcare facilities in Bangladesh. In total, 899 caregivers of under-five children with diarrhea were interviewed face-to-face between August 2017 and May 2018, followed up over phone after 7-14 days of discharge, to capture all expenses and time costs related to the entire episode of diarrhea. RESULTS: The average cost per episode for caregivers was US$62, with $29 direct and $34 indirect costs. From the societal perspective, average cost per episode of diarrhea was $71. In 2018, an estimated $79 million of economic costs were incurred for treating diarrhea in Bangladesh. Using 10% of income as threshold, over 46% of interviewed households faced catastrophic expenditure from diarrheal disease. CONCLUSION: The economic costs incurred by caregivers for treating per-episode of diarrhea was around 4% of the annual national gross domestic product per-capita. Investment in vaccination can help to reduce the prevalence of diarrheal diseases and avert this public health burden.