Acute-to-chronic subdural hematoma: radiographic and clinical progression from acute subdural hematoma.

INTRODUCTION: The pathogenesis of chronic subdural hematoma (CSDH) has not been completely understood. However, different mechanisms can result in space-occupying subdural fluid collections, one pathway can be the transformation of an original trauma-induced acute subdural hematoma (ASDH) into a CSDH. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All patients with unilateral CSDH, requiring burr hole trephination between 2018 and 2023 were included. The population was distributed into an acute-to-chronic group (group A, n = 41) and into a conventional group (group B, n = 282). Clinical and radiographic parameters were analyzed. In analysis A, changes of parameters after trauma within group A are compared. In analysis B, parameters between the two groups before surgery were correlated. RESULTS: In group A, volume and midline shift increased significantly during the progression from acute-to-chronic (p < 0.001, resp.). Clinical performance (modified Rankin scale, Glasgow Coma Scale) dropped significantly (p = 0.035, p < 0.001, resp.). Median time between trauma with ASDH and surgery for CSDH was 12 days. Patients treated up to the 12th day presented with larger volume of ASDH (p = 0.012). Before burr hole trephination, patients in group A presented with disturbance of consciousness (DOC) more often (p = 0.002), however less commonly with a new motor deficit (p = 0.014). Despite similar midline shift between the groups (p = 0.8), the maximal hematoma width was greater in group B (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: If ASDH transforms to CSDH, treatment may become mandatory early due to increase in volume and midline shift. Close monitoring of these patients is crucial since DOC and rapid deterioration is common in this type of SDH.

Comparative efficacy of craniotomy versus craniectomy in surgical management of acute subdural hematoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Acute subdural hematoma (ASDH), a predominantly lethal neurosurgical emergency in the settings of traumatic brain injury, requires surgical evacuation of hematoma, via craniotomy or craniectomy. The clinical practices vary, with no consensus over the superiority of either procedure. AIM: To evaluate whether craniotomy or craniectomy is the optimal approach for surgical evacuation of ASDH. METHODS: After a comprehensive search of PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) up to January 2024, to identify relevant studies, a meta-analysis was performed using a random-effects model, and risk ratios were calculated with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). For quality assessment, the Cochrane risk of bias tool and Newcastle-Ottawa Scale were applied. RESULTS: Out of 2143 potentially relevant studies, 1875 were deemed suitable for screening. Eighteen studies were included in the systematic review. Thirteen studies, in which 1589 patients underwent craniotomy and 1452 patients underwent craniectomy, allowed meta-analysis. Pooled estimates showed that there was no significant correlation of mortality at 6 months (RR 1.14;95 % CI; 0.94-1.38 P = 0.18) and 12 months (RR 1.17; 95 % CI; 0.84-1.63 P = 0.36) with the two surgical modalities. A positive association was observed between improved functional outcomes at 6-months and craniotomy (RR 0.76; 95 % CI; 0.62-0.93 P = 0.008), however, no significant difference was observed between the two treatment groups at 12 months follow-up (RR 0.89; 95 % CI; 0.72-1.09 P = 0.26). Craniotomy reported a significantly higher proportion of patients discharged to home (RR 0.63; 95 % CI; 0.49-0.83 P = 0.0007), whereas incidence of residual subdural hematoma was significantly lower in the craniectomy group (RR 0.70; 95 % CI; 0.52-0.94 P = 0.02). CONCLUSION: Craniectomy is associated with poor clinical outcomes. However, with long-term follow-up, no difference in mortality and functional outcomes is observed in either of the patient populations. On account of equivocal evidence regarding the efficacy of craniectomy over craniotomy in the realm of long-term outcomes, utmost preference shall be directed toward craniotomy as it is less invasive and associated with fewer complications.

Surgical strategies in acute subdural hematoma: a meta-analysis of decompressive craniectomy vs. craniotomy.

OBJECTIVE: Acute subdural hematoma (ASDH) stands as a significant contributor to morbidity after severe traumatic brain injuries (TBI). The primary treatment approach for patients experiencing progressive neurological deficits or notable mass effects is the surgical removal of the hematoma, which can be achieved through craniotomy (CO) or decompressive craniectomy (DC). Nevertheless, the choice between these two procedures remains a subject of ongoing debate and controversy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a comprehensive literature review, utilizing prominent online databases and manually searching references related to craniotomy and craniectomy for subdural hematoma evacuation up to November 2023. Our analysis focused on outcome variables such as the presence of residual subdural hematoma, the need for revision procedures, and overall clinical outcomes. RESULTS: We included a total of 11 comparative studies in our analysis, encompassing 4269 patients, with 2979 undergoing craniotomy and 1290 undergoing craniectomy, meeting the inclusion criteria. Patients who underwent craniectomy displayed significantly lower scores on the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) during their initial presentation. Following surgery, the DC group exhibited a significantly reduced rate of residual subdural (P = 0.009). Additionally, the likelihood of a poor outcome during follow-up was lower in the CO group. Likewise, the mortality rate was lower in the CO group compared to the craniectomy group (OR 0.63, 95% CI 0.41-0.98, I2 = 84%, P = 0.04). CONCLUSION: Our study found that CO was associated with more favorable outcomes in terms of mortality, reoperation rate, and functional outcome while DC was associated with less likelihood of residual subdural hematoma. Upon further investigation of patient characteristics who underwent into either of these interventions, it was very clear that patients in DC cohort have more serious and low pre-op characteristics than the CO group. Nonetheless, brain herniation and advanced age act as independent factor for predicting the outcome irrespective of the intervention.

Correlating Age and Hematoma Volume with Extent of Midline Shift in Acute Subdural Hematoma Patients: Validation of an Artificial Intelligence Tool for Volumetric Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Decision for intervention in acute subdural hematoma patients is based on a combination of clinical and radiographic factors. Age has been suggested as a factor to be strongly considered when interpreting midline shift (MLS) and hematoma volume data for assessing critical clinical severity during operative intervention decisions for acute subdural hematoma patients. The objective of this study was to demonstrate the use of an automated volumetric analysis tool to measure hematoma volume and MLS and quantify their relationship with age. METHODS: A total of 1789 acute subdural hematoma patients were analyzed using qER-Quant software (Qure.ai, Mumbai, India) for MLS and hematoma volume measurements. Univariable and multivariable regressions analyzed association between MLS, hematoma volume, age, and MLS:hematoma volume ratio. RESULTS: In comparison to young patients (≤ 70 years), old patients (>70 years) had significantly higher average hematoma volume (old: 62.2 mL vs. young 46.8 mL, P < 0.0001), lower average MLS (old: 6.6 mm vs. young: 7.4 mm, P = 0.025), and lower average MLS:hematoma volume ratio (old: 0.11 mm/mL vs. young 0.15 mm/mL, P < 0.0001). Young patients had an average of 1.5 mm greater MLS for a given hematoma volume in comparison to old patients. With increasing age, the ratio between MLS and hematoma volume significantly decreases (P = 0.0002). CONCLUSIONS: Commercially available, automated, artificial intelligence (AI)-based tools may be used for obtaining quantitative radiographic measurement data in patients with acute subdural hematoma. Our quantitative results are consistent with the qualitative relationship previously established between age, hematoma volume, and MLS, which supports the validity of using AI-based tools for acute subdural hematoma volume estimation.

Traumatic Falcine Artery Aneurysm Resulting in Intracranial Hemorrhage.

A 50-year-old man presented with mild unconsciousness after a fall-induced head injury. Initial imaging revealed a left-sided acute subdural hematoma. After transportation to our hospital, his condition deteriorated, leading to the discovery of a new hemorrhage and an anterior falcine artery aneurysm upon further examination. The patient underwent successful decompressive craniectomy and endovascular occlusion. This case, the first reported of a traumatic anterior falcine artery aneurysm, suggests the initial injury caused both the hematoma and aneurysm. The aneurysm's specific location near the crista galli likely contributed to the formation of the traumatic aneurysm, and the compression of the left frontal lobe by the acute subdural hematoma caused the subsequent hemorrhage. This case highlights the importance of considering traumatic aneurysms in atypical postinjury hemorrhages and adds to the understanding of traumatic intracranial aneurysms' mechanisms.

A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis study in comparing decompressive craniectomy versus craniotomy in patients with acute subdural hematoma.

There are two controversial surgery methods which are traditionally used: craniotomy and decompressive craniectomy. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and complications of DC versus craniotomy for surgical management in patients with acute subdural hemorrhage (SDH) following traumatic brain injury (TBI). We conducted a comprehensive search on PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase up to July 30, 2023, using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses checklist. Relevant articles were reviewed, with a focus on studies comparing decompressive craniectomy to craniotomy techniques in patients with SDH following TBI. Ten studies in 2401 patients were reviewed. A total of 1170 patients had a craniotomy, and 1231 had decompressive craniectomy. The mortality rate was not significantly different between the two groups (OR: 0.46 [95% CI: 0.42-0.5] P-value: 0.07). The rate of revision surgery was insignificantly different between the two groups (OR: 0.59 [95% CI: 0.49-0.69] P-value: 0.08). No significant difference was found between craniotomy and decompressive craniectomy regarding unilateral mydriasis (OR: 0.46 [95% CI: 0.35-0.57] P-value < 0.001). However, the craniotomy group had significantly lower rates of non-pupil reactivity (OR: 0.27 [95% CI: 0.17-0.41] P-value < 0.001) and bilateral mydriasis (OR: 0.59 [95% CI: 0.5-0.66] P-value: 0.04). There was also no significant difference in extracranial injury between the two groups, although the odds ratio of significant extracranial injury was lower in the craniotomy group (OR: 0.58 [95% CI: 0.45-0.7] P-value: 0.22). Our findings showed that non-pupil and bilateral-pupil reactivity were significantly more present in decompressive craniectomy. However, there was no significant difference between the two groups regarding mortality rate, extracranial injury, revision surgery, and one-pupil reactivity.

Clinical and neuroimaging characteristics in mild-type infantile acute subdural hematoma: report of four cases.

PURPOSE: Infantile acute subdural hematoma (IASDH) has a limited age distribution and mostly benign clinical features. Mild-type IASDH has a stereotypical clinical course which, however, has been described in only a few studies. METHODS: Four male infants (aged 6-10 months; mean age: 7.5 months) were diagnosed as mild-type IASDH associated with retinal hemorrhage (RH) after suffering from occipital impact in a fall. The present case series reviews their clinical features and neuroimaging findings, including CT and MRI findings. RESULTS: All the infants fell backwards from a standing or sitting position onto a soft surface, striking the occipital region. They began crying on impact and then soon afterwards exhibited seizure-like activity or recurrent vomiting. CT and MRI revealed a thin, unclotted subdural hematoma (SDH) without mass effect or brain parenchymal abnormality. Various degrees of bilateral RH were observed. On the day of symptom onset, all infants returned to baseline, and follow-up more than 5 years revealed normal development with no deficits. CONCLUSIONS: Mild-type IASDH with retinal hemorrhage presents with seizure-like activity or recurrent vomiting preceded by crying after an occipital impact on a soft surface. The clinical course of IASDH is followed by rapid recovery on the day of symptom onset. CT and MRI findings reveal a small, unclotted SDH without a mass effect or cerebral parenchymal abnormality.

Kernohan-Woltman Notch Phenomenon Following Acute Subdural Hematoma.

A 72-year-old right-handed female patient was operated on for left-sided acute subdural hematoma responsible for coma. Two weeks afterward, her neurological status had improved with a Glasgow Coma Scale score of 14 and a paradoxical left-sided hemiparesis. The brain magnetic resonance imaging displayed a diffusion-restricting, hyper fluid-attenuated inversion recovery lesion of the right cerebral peduncle facing the tentorial notch, and the patient was diagnosed with Kernohan-Woltman notch phenomenon. This allowed to focus the neurological rehabiliation on the ipsilateral motor deficit as well as the hemineglect.

Craniotomy versus craniectomy for traumatic acute subdural hematoma-coarsened exact matched analysis of outcomes.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Acute subdural hematoma (aSDH) after traumatic brain injury frequently requires emergent craniotomy (CO) or decompressive craniectomy (DC). We sought to determine the variables associated with either surgical approach and to compare outcomes between matched patients. METHODS: A multi-center retrospective review was used to identify traumatic aSDH patients who underwent CO or DC. Patient variables independently associated with surgical approach were used for coarsened exact matching.Multivariate logistic regression and multivariate Cox proportional-hazards regression wereconducted on matched patients to determine independent predictors of mortality. RESULTS: Seventy-six patients underwent CO and sixty-two underwent DC for aSDH evacuation. DC patients were21.4 years younger (P < 0.001), more likely to be male (80.6 % vs 60.5 %,P = 0.011), and present with GCS ≤ 8 (64.5 % vs 36.8 %,P = 0.001). Age (P < 0.001), epidural hematoma (P = 0.01), skull fracture (P = 0.001), and cisternal effacement (P = 0.02) were independently associated with surgical approach. After coarsened exact matching, DC (P = 0.008), older age (P = 0.007), male sex (P = 0.04), and intraventricular hemorrhage (P = 0.02), were independently associated with inpatient mortality. Multivariate Cox proportional-hazards regression demonstrated that DC was independently associated with mortality at 90-days (P = 0.001) and 1-year post-operation (P = 0.003). CONCLUSION: aSDH patients who receive surgical evacuation via DC as opposed to CO are younger, more likely to be male, and have worse clinical exam. After controlling for patient differences via coarsened exact matching, DC is independently associated with mortality.

Impact of Antithrombotic Medications and Reversal Strategies on the Surgical Management and Outcomes of Traumatic Acute Subdural Hematoma.

OBJECTIVE: Careful hematologic management is required in surgical patients with traumatic acute subdural hematoma (aSDH) taking antithrombotic medications. We sought to compare outcomes between patients with aSDH taking antithrombotic medications at admission who received antithrombotic reversal with patients with aSDH not taking antithrombotics. METHODS: Retrospective review identified patients with traumatic aSDH requiring surgical evacuation. The cohort was divided based on antithrombotic use and whether pharmacologic reversal agents or platelet transfusions were administered. A 3-way comparison of outcomes was performed between patients taking anticoagulants who received pharmacologic reversal, patients taking antiplatelets who received platelet transfusion, and patients not taking antithrombotics. Multivariable regressions, adjusted for injury severity, further investigated associations with outcomes. RESULTS: Of 138 patients who met inclusion criteria, 13.0% (n = 18) reported taking anticoagulants, 16.7% (n = 23) reported taking antiplatelets, and 3.6% (n = 5) reported taking both. Patients taking antiplatelets who received platelet transfusion had longer intraoperative times (P = 0.040) and higher rates of palliative care consultations (P = 0.046) compared with patients taking anticoagulants who received pharmacologic reversal and patients not taking antithrombotics. Across groups, no significant differences were found in frequency of in-hospital intracranial hemorrhage and venous thromboembolism, length of hospital stay, rate of inpatient mortality, or follow-up health status. In multivariable analysis, intraoperative time remained longest for the antiplatelets with platelet transfusion group. Other outcomes were not associated with patient group. CONCLUSIONS: Among surgical patients with traumatic aSDH, those taking antiplatelet medications who receive platelet transfusions experience longer intraoperative procedure times and higher rates of palliative care consultation. Comparable outcomes were observed between patients receiving antithrombotic reversal and patients not taking antithrombotics.

Degree of basal cisterns compression predicting mortality and functional outcome after craniotomy and primary decompressive craniectomy in acute subdural hematoma population.

OBJECTIVES: The compression of basal cisterns on CT is one of the signs of intracranial hypertension in TBI population. This study evaluates the relationship between the degree of basal cisterns effacement and outcomes in aSDH population. METHODS: The study includes prospectively collected data from 290 patients who underwent osteoplastic craniotomy (OC) or primary decompressive craniectomy (pDC) for aSDH from 2016 to 2021. Univariate and multivariate regression analyses were performed to evaluate the association of baseline characteristics and extent of basal cisterns compression on pre-operative and post-operative CT scans with the outcomes at the time of discharge. Outcomes were dichotomized into mortality (and unfavourable (GOS 1-3 vs GOS 4-5). The degree of cisternal compression was evaluated using the cisternal effacement score of perimesencephalic and quadrigeminal cisternal components. Critical thresholds associated with the outcomes were calculated. RESULTS: Age and pre-/post-operative degree of cisternal compression were the strongest independent predictors of intrahospital mortality in a whole sample and separately in OC and pDC subgroups. The unfavourable outcome was independently predicted by age, pre-/post-operative status of cisternal compression and initial GCS. Critical thresholds associated with the mortality and poor functional outcome were, respectively, age ≥ 70 (OR 3.14 [CI 95% 1.82-5.46], p < 0.001) and ≥ 67 (OR 3.87 [CI 95% 2.33-6.54], p < 0.001), pre-operative cisternal effacement score ≥ 9 (OR 6.39 [CI 95% 3.62-11.53], p < 0.001) and ≥ 7 (OR 4.93 [CI 95% 2.96-8.38], p < 0.001), post-operative cisternal effacement score ≥ 6 (OR 20.6 [CI 95% 10.08-45.10], p < 0.001) and ≥ 3 (OR 7.47 [CI 95% 3.87-15.73], p < 0.001) and initial GCS ≤ 8 (OR 0.24 [CI 95% 0.13-0.43], p < 0.001 and OR 0.12 [CI 95% 0.07-0.21], p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: After adjusting for baseline characteristics, age and degree of cisternal compression remained the independent predictors of mortality, whereas unfavourable outcomes were associated with age, cisternal obliteration and GCS on presentation.

How I do it: simplified craniotomy for acute subdural hematoma in the elderly.

CONTEXT: Acute subdural hematoma (ASH) is responsible for significant morbidity and mortality in the elderly. As military neurosurgeons, we perform a simplified technique using a linear skin incision and a small craniotomy bone flap in order to ease perioperative tolerance. METHODS: The patient lies supine, a pad under the shoulder ipsilateral to the ASH, the head completely rotated on the other side and placed on a circular pad, without head clamp. The linear frontotemporal skin incision should be twice the size of the bone flap's diameter, allowing to access the whole subdural space. Care is taken to obtain complete decompression of the temporal fossa in order to alleviate uncal herniation. A subdural drain can be placed, and the subdural space is filled with warm saline solution in order to create a closed drainage system. CONCLUSION: The patient is allowed to sit at postoperative day 1 and to walk at postoperative day 2. Simplified craniotomy for ASH allows to reduce operative time and provides faster functional recovery.

Outcomes After the Surgical Evacuation of Traumatic Acute Subdural Hematomas: The tASDH Risk Score.

BACKGROUND: Acute subdural hematoma (ASDH) is a common pathology following traumatic brain injury (TBI). There is sparse data on the prediction of clinical outcomes following traumatic ASDH (tASDH) evacuation. We investigated prognosticators of outcome following evacuation of tASDHs, with subset analysis in a cohort of octogenarians. We developed a scoring system for stratifying the risk of in-hospital mortality for patients undergoing tASDH evacuation. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was performed to identify all patients who underwent tASDH evacuation. Baseline clinical and demographic data including age, traumatic brain injury mechanism, admission Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), and Rotterdam computed tomography Scale (RCS) were collected. In-hospital outcomes such as mortality and discharge disposition were collected. A scoring system (tASDH Score) which incorporates RCS (1-2 points), admissions GCS (0-1 points), and age (0-1 point) was created to predict the risk of in-hospital mortality following tASDH evacuation. RESULTS: Being an octogenarian (OR = 6.91 [2.20-21.71], P = 0.0009), having a GCS of 9-12 (OR = 1.58 [1.32-4.12], P = 0.027) or 3-8 (OR = 2.07 [1.41-10.38], P = 0.018), and having an RCS of 4-6 (OR = 3.49 [1.45-8.44], P = 0.0055) were independently predictive of in-hospital mortality. The in-hospital mortality rate was lower for those with a tASDH score of 1 (10%), compared to those with a score of 2 (12%), 3 (42%), and 4 (100%). CONCLUSIONS: Octogenarians with an RCS of 4-6 and an admission GCS <13 have a high risk of mortality following tASDH evacuation. Knowledge of which patients are unlikely to survive ASDH evacuation may help guide neurosurgeons in prognostication and goals of care discussions.