Overcome Health Inequities to Eliminate Viral Hepatitis.

This Viewpoint outlines the progress made toward eliminating hepatitis B and C but emphasizes the work that remains to prioritize diagnosis and treatment of populations disproportionately affected by viral hepatitis, including ensuring that there are systems in place to treat those infected and care for those at risk.

Improving care of migrants is key for viral hepatitis elimination in Europe.

By 2040, deaths from chronic viral hepatitis worldwide are projected to exceed those from human immunodeficiency virus infection, tuberculosis and malaria combined. The burden of this disease is predominantly carried by low-resource countries in Africa and Asia. In resource-rich countries, the epidemiological spread of viral hepatitis is partially driven by migrant movements from areas of high endemicity. In the last decade, Member States of the European Union and the European Economic Area have experienced an unprecedented influx of migrants, which has resulted in the polarization of political views about migration. In addition, the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has worsened the economic and health conditions of migrants and contributed to hostility to ensuring their health rights. Moreover, the implementation of hostile laws in some host nations has increased the vulnerability of marginalized migrant subgroups, such as asylum seekers and undocumented individuals. These developments have complicated the historical challenge of identifying high-risk migrant groups for screening and treatment. However, if European countries can apply the simplified assessment tools and diagnostic tests for viral hepatitis that have been used for decentralized screening and monitoring in resource-poor countries, the uptake of care by migrants could be dramatically increased. Given the global calls for the elimination of viral hepatitis, European nations should recognize the importance of treating this vulnerable migrant population. Political and health strategies need to be adapted to meet this challenge and help eliminate viral hepatitis globally.

D'ici 2040, les décès causés par l'hépatite virale chronique dans le monde devraient dépasser ceux dus à trois grandes maladies réunies: l'infection au virus de l'immunodéficience humaine, la tuberculose et la malaria. Le fardeau que représente cette affection repose surtout sur les pays disposant de ressources limitées en Afrique et en Asie. Dans les pays riches en ressources, la propagation épidémiologique de l'hépatite virale est en partie liée aux mouvements migratoires depuis les zones à endémicité élevée. Au cours de la dernière décennie, les États membres de l'Union européenne et l'Espace économique européen ont connu un afflux de migrants sans précédent qui a polarisé les opinions politiques concernant la migration. En outre, la pandémie de maladie à coronavirus 2019 a aggravé la situation économique et sanitaire des migrants, contribuant à l'animosité ambiante à l'égard du respect de leurs droits en matière de santé. L'adoption de lois hostiles dans certains pays d'accueil a également accru la vulnérabilité des sous-groupes de migrants marginalisés, tels que les demandeurs d'asile et les sans-papiers. Des conditions qui compliquent la tâche d'identification des groupes de migrants à haut risque pour le dépistage et le traitement. Néanmoins, si les pays européens pouvaient appliquer les outils d'évaluation simplifiés et les tests de diagnostic de l'hépatite virale, qui ont été employés pour la surveillance et le dépistage décentralisé dans les pays disposant de ressources limitées, la prise en charge des migrants pourrait nettement s'améliorer. Compte tenu des nombreux appels internationaux à éliminer l'hépatite virale, les nations européennes devraient reconnaître l'importance de soigner ces populations de migrants vulnérables. Les stratégies politiques et sanitaires doivent être adaptées afin de relever ce défi et de contribuer à éradiquer l'hépatite virale dans le monde.

Para 2040, se prevé que las muertes por hepatitis vírica crónica en todo el mundo superen a las causadas por la infección del virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana, la tuberculosis y la malaria juntas. La carga de esta enfermedad recae sobre todo en los países con recursos limitados de África y Asia. En los países ricos en recursos, la propagación epidemiológica de las hepatitis víricas se debe en parte a los movimientos migratorios desde las zonas altamente endémicas. En la última década, los Estados miembros de la Unión Europea y del Espacio Económico Europeo han experimentado una afluencia de inmigrantes sin precedentes, lo que ha polarizado las opiniones políticas sobre la inmigración. Además, la pandemia de la enfermedad del coronavirus de 2019 ha empeorado las condiciones económicas y sanitarias de los inmigrantes y ha contribuido a la hostilidad para garantizar sus derechos sanitarios. Además, la aplicación de leyes hostiles en algunas naciones de acogida ha aumentado la vulnerabilidad de subgrupos de inmigrantes marginados, como los solicitantes de asilo y los indocumentados. Estos acontecimientos han complicado el reto histórico de identificar a los grupos de inmigrantes de alto riesgo para su detección y tratamiento. Sin embargo, si los países europeos pueden aplicar las herramientas de evaluación y las pruebas de diagnóstico simplificadas para la hepatitis vírica que se han utilizado para el cribado y el seguimiento descentralizados en los países con pocos recursos, la aceptación de la atención por parte de los inmigrantes podría aumentar drásticamente. Dados los llamamientos mundiales para la eliminación de la hepatitis vírica, las naciones europeas deberían reconocer la importancia de tratar a esta población inmigrante vulnerable. Es necesario adaptar las estrategias políticas y sanitarias para hacer frente a este reto y ayudar a eliminar la hepatitis vírica a nivel mundial.

A Qualitative Community Assessment of Racial/Ethnic Sexual Gender Minority Young Adults: Principles for Strategies to Motivate Action(s) for Realistic Tasks (SMART Thinking) Addressing HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, Mental Health, and Substance Abuse.

HIV/STI, substance use, and mental health issues disproportionately affect racial/ethnic sexual minority young adults. These health vulnerabilities intensify across the life course, most notably when young adults are independent college students. To identify the perspectives of racial/ethnic sexual gender minorities living on or near an urban university, we implemented an intersectionality-informed SWOT (strengths, weakness, opportunities, and threats) analysis, as a qualitative community assessment situated within in a campus-community setting. The community needs assessment was the first step in the strategic prevention framework (SPF) to co-locate substance abuse, mental health, viral hepatitis, and HIV prevention care services for Latinx and Black/African American sexual gender minority young adults at a minority-serving institution. The SWOT analysis identified principles for selecting, adapting, and implementing an evidence-based intervention. The significance of these principles demonstrates the value of intersectionality in evidence-based interventions to influence health education and behavior among racial/ethnic sexual gender minorities.

Relationship of genetic polymorphisms in CTLA-4 and IL-18 with viral hepatitis: evidence from a meta-analysis.

Relationship of genetic polymorphisms in cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) and interleukin-18 (IL-18) with susceptibility to viral hepatitis was already investigated by many association studies. The aim of this study was to more comprehensively analyse associations between genetic polymorphisms in CTLA-4/IL-18 and viral hepatitis by combing the results of all relevant association studies. We searched Pubmed, Embase, Web of Science and CNKI for eligible studies. We used Review Manager to combine the results of eligible studies. Thirty-seven studies were finally included in this meta-analysis. Combined results demonstrated that CTLA-4 rs231775 (recessive comparison: OR 1.31, 95% CI 1.11-1.55), IL-18 rs1946518 (dominant comparison: OR 0.82, 95% CI 0.75-0.90; recessive comparison: OR 1.29, 95% CI 1.11-1.50; allele comparison: OR 0.76, 95% CI 0.68-0.86) and IL-18 rs187238 (dominant comparison: OR 1.25, 95% CI 1.03-1.52; allele comparison: OR 1.20, 95% CI 1.05-1.37) polymorphisms were all significantly associated with viral hepatitis in the general population. Further subgroup analyses revealed that CTLA-4 rs231775, IL-18 rs1946518 and IL-18 rs187238 polymorphisms were significantly associated with susceptibility to hepatitis B virus (HBV), especially among East Asians. Moreover, CTLA-4 rs5742909, IL-18 rs1946518 and IL-18 rs187238 polymorphisms were also significantly associated with susceptibility to hepatitis C virus (HCV), especially among South Asians. So to conclude, this meta-analysis demonstrated that CTLA-4 rs231775, IL-18 rs1946518 and IL-18 rs187238 polymorphisms may confer susceptibility to HBV in East Asians, while CTLA-4 rs5742909, IL-18 rs1946518 and IL-18 rs187238 polymorphisms may confer susceptibility to HCV in South Asians.

Sequence balance minimisation: minimising with unequal treatment allocations.

BACKGROUND: Minimisation ensures excellent balance between groups for several prognostic factors, even in small samples. However, its use with unequal allocation ratios has been problematic. This paper describes a new minimisation scheme named sequence balance minimisation for unequal treatment allocations. METHODS: Treatment- and factor-balancing properties were assessed in simulation studies for two- and three-arm trials with 1:2 and 1:2:3 allocation ratios. Sample sizes were set 30, 60 and 120. The number of prognostic factors on which to achieve balance was ranged from zero (treatment totals only) to ten with two levels occurring in equal probabilities. Random elements were set at 0.95, 0.9, 0.85, 0.80, 0.7, 0.6 and 0.5. Characteristics of the randomisation distributions and the impact of changing the block size while maintaining the allocation ratio were also examined. RESULTS: Sequence balance minimisation has good treatment- and factor-balancing capabilities, and the randomisation distribution was centred at zero for all scenarios. The mean and median number of allocations achieved were the same as the number expected in most scenarios, and including additional factors (up to ten) in the minimisation scheme had little impact on treatment balance. Treatment balance tended to depart from the target as the random element was lowered. The variability in allocations achieved increased slightly as the number of factors increased, as the random element was decreased and as the sample size increased. The mean and median factor imbalance remained tightly around zero even when the chosen factor was not included in the minimisation scheme, though the variability was greater. The variability in factor imbalance increased slightly as the random element decreased, as well as when the number of prognostic factors and sample size increased. Increasing block size while maintaining the allocation ratio improved treatment balance notably with little impact on factor imbalance. CONCLUSIONS: Sequence balance minimisation has good treatment- and factor-balancing properties and is particularly useful for small trials seeking to achieve balance across several prognostic factors.

Chronic Health Conditions Among Incoming Canadian Federally Sentenced Women.

Over a 13-month period, health data on all consecutive incoming Canadian federally sentenced women offenders were collected and analyzed ( N = 280). The most common health conditions cited were back pain, head injury, hepatitis C virus (HCV), and asthma. Rates of chronic health problems were generally similar to those of their male offender counterparts, with the notable exception of HCV, which was higher for women. Aboriginal women offenders had particularly high rates of HCV. The study provides valuable information on the self-reported physical health status of federally sentenced women offenders that can be used as a benchmark to examine health trends over time.

[Infectious diseases in the adult population admitted to a general hospital]. / Enfermedades infecciosas en población adulta extranjera ingresada en un hospital general.

INTRODUCTION: To determine the infectious diseases (ID) that led to hospital admission of the foreign population>14 years. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A retrospective study of foreign patients admitted to hospital (2000-2012). RESULTS: A total of 3,087 foreigners were admitted with infectious diseases. Of these, 73.6% were from low income countries, and 26.4% from high income countries. Most of them (86.9%) were admitted with common ID, 11.8% with transmissible ID, and 1.6% with tropical ID. Tropical ID and transmissible ID were higher in patients from low income countries (14.7%) than from high income countries (9.7%, p<0.001). The main tropical ID was malaria (74%). The main transmissible ID were tuberculosis (40.3%), hepatitis (27.8%), and HIV/AIDS (27.5%). CONCLUSION: Common ID were the main reason for admission in foreign population.

Individuals having variant genotypes of cytochrome P450 2C19 are at increased risk of developing primary liver cancer in Han populations, without infection with the hepatitis virus.

Recently, many researchers have reported that the genetic polymorphisms of CYP2C19 may account for the interpatient variability of the clinical course in cancers including primary liver cancer (PLC). Besides the genetic polymorphisms of CYP2C19, hepatitis viruses (HV, including HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV, HEV, especially HBV and/or HCV) also account for the interpatient variability of the clinical course in PLC. This research covered the above two factors and divided the patients with PLC into two groups (one group with HBV infection and another without any HV infection) to find out whether the genetic polymorphisms of CYP2C19 have different effects in the progressing of PLC in different groups of patients. Eight hundred sixty-four cancer-free Han people (controls, named group 1), 207 Han PLC patients with HBV infection (group 2), and 55 Han PLC patients without any HV infection (group 3) were involved in this study. A wild-type allele (CYP2C19*1) and two mutated alleles (CYP2C19*2 and CYP2C19*3) were identified. The frequencies of the mutant alleles and genotypes were then compared with each other. The frequencies of the homozygous and heterozygous variant genotypes (*2/*2, *2/*3, *3/*3) in group 3 (25.5 %) were significantly higher than those in other groups (11.9 % in group 1 and 13.5 % in group 2, P = 0.014, 95 % confidence interval (CI)). The differences were statistically significant between group 1 and group 3 (P = 0.004, 95 % CI), but they were not statistically significant between group 1 and group 2 (P = 0.527, 95 % CI). Thus, we conclude that people which were not infected with HV but with the homozygous or heterozygous variant genotypes (*2/*2, *2/*3, *3/*3) of CYP2C19 may have higher possibilities of getting PLC than people with other allelic genotypes (*1/*1, *1/*2, *1/*3) (odds ratio (OR) = 2.523, 95 % CI = 1.329 ~ 4.788). However, in patients with HBV infection, the genetic polymorphisms of CYP2C19 did not seem to be an important factor in the risk of developing PLC (OR = 1.156, 95 % CI = 0.738 ~ 1.810).

Acute hepatitis in israeli travelers.

BACKGROUND: Acute hepatitis is a well-described cause of morbidity and sporadic mortality in travelers. Data regarding the epidemiology of hepatitis in travelers are lacking. The aim of this study is to describe the epidemiology of acute viral hepatitis among travelers returning from tropical countries, with particular attention to enterically transmitted hepatitis. METHODS: This study is a prospective observational study of ill-returned travelers who presented at two travel medicine clinics in Israel between the years 1997 and 2012. Data of patients with acute hepatitis were summarized. Only travelers were included, immigrants and foreign workers were excluded. RESULTS: Among 4,970 Israeli travelers who were seen during this period, 49 (1%) were diagnosed with acute hepatitis. Among them, hepatitis E virus (HEV) was the etiology in 19 (39%) cases and hepatitis A virus (HAV) was the etiology in 13 (27%) cases, demonstrating that 65% of all cases were due to enterically transmitted hepatitis. Acquiring acute hepatitis B (two cases) or acute hepatitis C (one case) was uncommon (6.1%). In 27% of the cases, no diagnosis was determined. Fifty-five percent of cases were imported from the Indian subcontinent, with a predominance of HEV infection (84%). A significant male predominance was seen in all groups regardless of etiology. Pre-travel consultation was documented in only 7% of those with vaccine preventable hepatitis (hepatitis A & B) compared to 89% in those with hepatitis E. CONCLUSIONS: Enterically transmitted hepatitis is the main causes of viral hepatitis among travelers. HEV is an emerging disease and has become the most common hepatitis among Israeli travelers. Although an efficacious vaccine has been developed, no licensed HEV vaccine is yet available. Although hepatitis A vaccine is highly efficacious, safe, and easily available, there is a stable number of HAV cases.

[Radiological findings in patients with imported schistosomiasis]. / Hallazgos radiológicos en pacientes con esquistosomiasis importada.

INTRODUCTION: Imaging techniques, primarily ultrasound, are useful in the diagnosis and monitoring of patients with schistosomiasis in endemic areas. METHODS: Study of 219 patients treated in sub-Saharan Tropical Medicine Unit with a diagnosis of imported schistosomiasis by imaging techniques investigations including plain abdominal radiography and ultrasound. RESULTS: A total of 17.8% of patients who had an abdominal X-ray showed findings suggestive of schistosomiasis, in most cases bladder calcifications. In 73 patients (41%) ultrasound showed pathological findings, mainly diffuse or focal wall thickening (26 patients), nodular lesions (n=14), and pseudopolyps (n=8). One patient, who had a large bladder mass (9cm) and bilateral ureterohydronephrosis, was finally diagnosed with squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder. Ultrasound liver abnormalities were found in 10 patients, 4 with signs of portal hypertension, of which 3 had the characteristic periportal fibrosis in schistosomiasis. CONCLUSION: Imaging studies, especially abdominal and bladder ultrasound, are useful for diagnosis, the study of disease and monitoring of patients with schistosomiasis in non-endemic countries.

Diurnal variation in serum alanine aminotransferase activity in the US population.

GOALS AND BACKGROUND: Serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity has been reported to be greater in the afternoon than the early morning, but data are scarce. We examined diurnal variation of ALT in a national population-based sample. STUDY: Participants in the 1999 to 2008 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were randomly assigned to morning (AM; n = 4474 adolescents, 11,235 adults) or afternoon/evening (PM; n = 4887 adolescents, 11,735 adults) examinations. We examined ALT distributions graphically and compared both geometric mean ALT and the prevalence of elevated ALT, defined as >31 IU/L for adolescent boys, >24 IU/L for adolescent girls, >43 IU/L for adult men, and >30 IU/L for adult women, between AM and PM examination groups. RESULTS: The examination groups were similar with the exception in the AM group of a longer fasting time and slightly higher prevalence of diabetes among adolescents and viral hepatitis B among adult women. ALT distributions were similar between examination sessions among the 4 groups. Among adolescents and men, neither mean ALT nor prevalence of abnormal ALT differed by examination group. Among women, mean ALT was statistically significant, but minimally higher in the PM group (19.6 IU/L) than the AM group (19.1 IU/L; P = 0.009). Among 1 subgroup, women with chronic viral hepatitis, there was a higher prevalence of abnormal ALT in the PM group (P = 0.018 in unadjusted analysis). Adjusting for liver injury risk factors had little effect on the difference in mean ALT. CONCLUSIONS: In general, clinically significant diurnal variation in ALT activity was not found in the US population.

[Imported and non-imported diseases in the immigrant population. A decade of experience from an infectious diseases unit]. / Enfermedades importadas y no importadas en la población inmigrante. Una década de experiencia desde una unidad de enfermedades infecciosas.

INTRODUCTION: Immigration is an inexorable process. Immigrants may suffer infectious diseases commonly seen in our environment, or those more exotic or more prevalent in their own environment. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A study was performed including all immigrants see in an Infectious Diseases Unit of a general hospital from June 2001 to May 2010. RESULTS: We studied 1,071 patients from Latin America (n=405, 37.8%), Northern Africa (n=281, 26.2%), Eastern Europe (n=186, 17.4%), sub-Saharan Africa (n=178, 16.6%), and Asia (21, 2.0%). Transmissible infectious diseases were the leading cause of consultation (53.8%), and they were more common among people coming from Northern Africa (61.6%) and Eastern Europe (69.4%) (P=.001). The second reason for consultation was for common infectious diseases (29%). Tropical infectious diseases were diagnosed in 16.4% of the patients, particularly from sub-Saharan Africa (36%), and Latin America (25.9%) (P<.001). The most common diagnoses were latent tuberculous infection (20.8%) [most common in those from Eastern Europe (27.4%) (P=.004)], respiratory tract infection (12.5%), sexually transmitted infections (10.6%) [most common in patients from Northern Africa (17.1%) (P=.004)], chronic hepatitis (10.4%) [most common in patients from Eastern Europe (26.3%) (P<.001) and sub-Saharan Africa (16.9%) (P=.004)], and active tuberculosis (8.7%) [most common in sub-Saharan Africa patients (15.7%) (P=.001)]. CONCLUSIONS: The spectrum of infectious diseases in the immigrant population in our area is broad, and includes a wide variety of tropical and communicable diseases, but also of common infections. While communicable diseases are the leading cause of consultation, common infections constitute an important part of health care activity.

Liver diseases in Mexico and their associated mortality trends from 2000 to 2007: A retrospective study of the nation and the federal states.

INTRODUCTION: Liver disease is a major health issue in Mexico. Although several studies have been performed to analyze the impact of liver diseases on the Mexican population, none has compared the prevalence and impact of liver disease between states within Mexico. AIM: To analyze trends in mortality associated with liver diseases from 2000 to 2007 at the national and state levels. METHODS: Data was obtained from the Ministry of Health (number of deaths) and the National Population Council (CONAPO) (population at risk) and mortality rates were analyzed using statistical software. RESULTS: Mortality due to viral hepatitis, liver tumors, and cirrhosis increased over the study period. Alcohol-related mortality decreased but was still the main cause of liver-related deaths. Viral hepatitis infection occurred predominantly in the northern states and liver tumors occurred predominantly in the central region. Alcohol-related deaths were elevated along the Pacific shoreline and deaths associated with cirrhosis occurred mainly in the central and southern states. CONCLUSION: Incidence of liver-related mortality has increased and will continue to do so in the future.

Racial disparity in surgical mortality after major hepatectomy.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between surgical mortality and race has not been studied for major hepatectomy. We sought to quantify and explore the nature of racial disparities in surgical mortality after major hepatectomy in a nationally representative cohort of patients. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a retrospective cohort study using data from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (1998 to 2005). Adult patients undergoing major hepatectomy within 1 day of nontrauma admission were included. Logistic regression models were used to assess the variation of in-hospital mortality by race after adjustment for other risk factors. RESULTS: The study cohort consisted of 3,552 observations representing 17,794 patients undergoing major hepatectomy. Unadjusted analyses revealed that African-American patients had a two-fold increased odds of surgical mortality (odds ratio 2.22, 95% CI 1.38 to 3.57) relative to Caucasians. Even after adjustment for other risk factors, African Americans had a two-fold increased odds of surgical mortality (odds ratio 2.15, 95% CI 1.28 to 3.61) relative to Caucasians. Stratified analyses restricting the cohort to patients without comorbidities, those with neoplasms, those with private insurance, or those treated at high-volume hospitals all demonstrated racial disparities in surgical mortality. CONCLUSIONS: In-hospital mortality after major hepatectomy varies substantially by race. After adjustment for potential confounders, African-American patients have two-fold higher population-level odds of surgical mortality than Caucasian patients do. Our analyses suggest that clinical factors, insurance status, and hospital factors do not account for these differences. Additional studies to clarify the nature of this disparity and identify targets for intervention are warranted.

Racial and ethnic variations in hepatocellular carcinoma incidence within the United States.

BACKGROUND: The increasing incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma coupled with this cancer's high mortality is a public health problem. Delineating high-risk populations and cancer patterns can provide valuable information. This is necessary to broaden screening and surveillance guidelines related to early detection and prevention. METHODS: By using data collected by the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program, a population-based cancer registry in the United States, our retrospective cohort study evaluated sex-specific, race/ethnicity-specific, and age-specific variations in hepatocellular carcinoma incidence from 1992 to 2004. RESULTS: With men and women combined, the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma among Asians was the highest, nearly double that of white Hispanics (11.0 vs 6.8 per 100,000/y), and more than 4 times higher than that of Caucasians (11.0 vs 2.6 per 100,000/y). Although male subjects demonstrated a doubling of cancer rates every 10 years from 30 to 50 years of age, female subjects reached male-comparable rates of cancer 10 to 15 years later and peaked at significantly lower values for all race and ethnic groups. CONCLUSION: Marked differences in the incidence rates of hepatocellular carcinoma by sex, ethnicity, and age of diagnosis likely represent variations in risk factor distributions (eg, viral hepatitis) and possibly in host genetics or other environmental factors. An individualized approach tailored to specific risk profiles may more effectively identify treatable tumors than more general guidelines.

Chronic disease mortality associated with infectious agents: a comparative cohort study of migrants from the Former Soviet Union in Israel and Germany.

BACKGROUND: Prevalence of infectious diseases in migrant populations has been addressed in numerous studies. However, information is sparse on their mortality due to chronic diseases that are aetiologically associated with an infectious agent. This study investigates mortality related to infectious diseases with a specific focus on cancers of possibly infectious origin in voluntary migrants from the Former Soviet Union residing in Israel and in Germany. METHODS: Both groups of migrants arrived from the Former Soviet Union in their destination countries between 1990 and 2001. Population-based data on migrants in Israel were obtained from the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. Data for migrants in Germany were obtained from a representative sample of all migrants from the Former Soviet Union in Germany. Cause of death information was available until 2003 for the Israeli cohort and until 2005 for the German cohort. Standardized mortality ratios were calculated relative to the destination country for selected causes of death for which infectious agents may be causally involved. Multivariate Poisson regression was applied to assess differences in mortality by length of residence in the host country. RESULTS: Both in Israel and in Germany these migrants have lower overall mortality than the population in their destination countries. However, they have significantly elevated mortality from viral hepatitis and from stomach and liver cancer when compared to the destination populations. Regression analysis shows that in Israel stomach cancer mortality is significantly higher among migrants at shorter durations of residence when compared to durations of more than nine years. CONCLUSION: Higher mortality from cancers associated with infection and from viral hepatitis among migrants from the Former Soviet Union might result from higher prevalence of infections which were acquired in earlier years of life. The results highlight new challenges posed by diseases of infectious origin in migrants and call attention to the link between communicable and non-communicable diseases.

[The practice guideline 'Viral hepatitis and other liver diseases' (second revision) from the Dutch College of General Practitioners; a response from the perspective of general practice]. / De standaard 'Virushepatitis en andere leveraandoeningen' (tweede herziening) van het Nederlands Huisartsen Genootschap; reactie vanuit de huisartsgeneeskunde.

This revised practice guideline appears to concern a relatively arbitrarily chosen group of liver diseases. Why not choose for hepatitis alone or for a complete liver practice guideline? The approach to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis does not differ from that of other lifestyle diseases. The elaboration on hepatitis misses the importance of the ethnic risk factor even though there is much literature evidence to support this association. This is not in accordance with the new policy of the Dutch College of General Practitioners to pay more attention to ethnic factors in practice guideline development. Apart from these criticisms, the practice guideline is well structured and well written, notably with respect to the strategy for hepatitis A, B and C.

[Imported diseases]. / Importerede sygdomme.

In Denmark, about one third of notifiable diseases are imported, but these have had only a limited spread within the Danish community. For example, imported strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis remain confined to the immigrant population, and the high prevalence of chronic hepatitis B among certain groups of immigrants has not resulted in a general increase in the incidence of hepatitis B. Exceptions are imported cases of hepatitis A in children, which have resulted in outbreaks in the indigenous Danish population, and the import of drug-resistant bacteria, which often pose a serious challenge to hospital hygiene.

Health disparities among African-American and Hispanic drug injectors--HIV, AIDS, hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus: a review.

Disparities in healthcare access, medical outcomes, and specific chronic diseases have been documented for African-American and Hispanic individuals in comparison with non-Hispanic whites. What may be less well known are those health disparities related to common blood-borne pathogens such as hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). Several studies have shown that African-American and Hispanic injection drug users (IDU) have higher prevalence rates of these blood-borne pathogens, in addition to higher prevalence rates of HIV infection and AIDS cases. These blood-borne pathogens may contribute to the increased morbidity and mortality among African-American and Hispanic IDU, and perhaps also that of their sexual partners. This article reviews some of what is currently known about the epidemiology of HIV, AIDS, HBV, and HCV among African-American and Hispanic individuals, in general, and IDU in particular. In order to reduce or eliminate these health disparities a comprehensive approach is required that includes case finding, pre and post-test counseling, clinical treatment and management, and community-based behavioral or structural interventions.

[Immunogenetic HLA markers of chronic viral hepatitis].

AIM: To study possible immunogenetic HLA markers of chronic viral hepatitides. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Using the reaction of complement-dependent cytotoxicity by Terasaki, we analysed distribution of leukocytic HLA antigens (loci A, B and C) in 179 patients with chronic viral hepatitides B, C and D in Russians and Kazakhs living in the Astrakhan Region. RESULTS: In the Russian population we discovered a significant positive association of CVHB with HLA-B18, HLA-B35, HLA-B40, HLA-Cw3 antigens, and negative one--with HLA-A2. In Kazakhs with CVHB there was a positive association with HLA-A3, HLA-B18 and negative one--with HLA-A11. Alleles HLA-A10, HLA-B35, HLA-B40 and HLA-Cw3 mark CVHC in Russians. HLA-Cw4 specificity acts as protector in development of chronic HCV-infection. A correlation was found between carriage of some specificities and haplotypes of HLA and activity of chronic HBV and HCV infection. A high risk of chronic delta infection in Russians is associated with HLA-B8 and HLA-B35, in Kazakhs--with HLA-B35 and HLA-D40. There are significant associations between CVHB, CVHC, chronic delta infection and some HLA haplotypes. CONCLUSION: A universal role of HLA-B35 specificity in development of CVH irrespective of hepatotropic virus and patients' nationality is shown.