On-site treatment of flowback and produced water from shale gas hydraulic fracturing: A review and economic evaluation.

On-site flowback treatment systems are typically rated and selected based on three fundamental categories: satisfying customer needs (e.g. meeting effluent quality, capacity, delivery time and time required to reach stable and steady effluent quality), common features comparison (e.g. treatment costs, stability of operation, scalability, logistics, and maintenance frequency) and through substantial product differentiation such as better service condition, overcoming current market limitations (e.g. fouling, salinity limit), and having lower environmental footprints and emissions. For treatment of flowback, multiple on-site treatment systems are available for primary separation (i.e. reducing TSS concentrations and particle size below 25 µm for disposal), secondary separation (i.e. removing TSS, iron and main scaling ions, and reducing particle size up to 5 µm for reuse), or tertiary treatment (i.e. reducing TDS concentration in the permeate/distillate to below 500 mg/L) for recycling or discharge. Depending on geographic features, frac-fluid characteristics, and regulatory aspects, operators may choose disposal or reuse of flowback water. Among these approaches, desalination is the least utilized option while in the majority of cases on-site basic separation is selected which can result in savings up to $306,800 per well. Compared to desalination systems, basic separation systems (e.g. electrocoagulation, dissolved air floatation) have higher treatment capacity (159-4133 m3/d) and specific water treatment production per occupied space (8.9-58.8 m3/m2), lower treatment costs ($2.90 to $13.30 per m3) and energy demand, and finally generate less waste owing to their high recovery of 98-99.5%, which reduces both operator costs and environmental burdens.

Transport of hydraulic fracturing waste from Pennsylvania wells: A county-level analysis of road use and associated road repair costs.

Pennsylvania's rapid unconventional oil and gas (UOG) development-from a single well in 2004 to more than 6700 wells in 2013-has dramatically increased UOG waste transport by heavy trucks. This study quantified the amount of UOG waste and the distance it traveled between wells and disposal facilities on each type of road in each county between July 2010 and December 2013. In addition, the study estimated the associated financial costs to each county's road infrastructure over that period. We found that UOG wells produced a median wastewater volume of 1294 m(3) and a median of 89,267 kg of solid waste. The median number of waste-transport truck trips per well was 122. UOG wells existed in 38 Pennsylvania counties, but we estimated trucks transporting well waste traveled through 132 counties, including counties in West Virginia, Ohio, and New York. Median travel distance varied by disposal type, from 106 km to centralized treatment facilities up to 237 km to injection wells. Local roads experienced the greatest amount of truck traffic and associated costs ($1.1-6.5 M) and interstates, the least ($0.3-1.6 M). Counties with oil and gas development experienced the most truck traffic and incurred the highest associated roadway costs. However, many counties outside the active development area also incurred roadway repair costs, highlighting the extension of UOG development's spatial footprint beyond the active development area. An online data visualization tool is available here: www.nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/transportation-of-hydraulic-fracturing-waste.