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1.
Molecules ; 25(17)2020 Aug 26.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-32859023

ABSTRACT

This review provides an updated atomic-level perspective regarding the enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMG-CoAR), linking the more recent data on this enzyme with a structure/function interpretation. This enzyme catalyzes one of the most important steps in cholesterol biosynthesis and is regarded as one of the most important drug targets in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia. Taking this into consideration, we review in the present article several aspects of this enzyme, including its structure and biochemistry, its catalytic mechanism and different reported and proposed approaches for inhibiting this enzyme, including the commercially available statins or the possibility of using dimerization inhibitors.


Subject(s)
Acyl Coenzyme A/metabolism , Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors , Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductases, NAD-Dependent , Hypercholesterolemia , Protein Multimerization/drug effects , Humans , Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors/chemistry , Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors/therapeutic use , Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductases, NAD-Dependent/chemistry , Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductases, NAD-Dependent/metabolism , Hypercholesterolemia/drug therapy , Hypercholesterolemia/enzymology
2.
Biochemistry ; 57(39): 5715-5725, 2018 10 02.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30199631

ABSTRACT

The enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase (HMGR) catalyzes the first committed step of the mevalonate pathway, which is used across biology in the biosynthesis of countless metabolites. HMGR consumes 2 equiv of the cofactor NAD(P)H to perform the four-electron reduction of HMG-CoA to mevalonate toward the production of steroids and isoprenoids, the largest class of natural products. Recent structural data have shown that HMGR contains a highly mobile C-terminal domain (CTD) that is believed to adopt many different conformations to permit binding and dissociation of the substrate, cofactors, and products at specific points during the reaction cycle. Here, we have characterized the HMGR from Delftia acidovorans as an NADH-specific enzyme and determined crystal structures of the enzyme in unbound, mevalonate-bound, and NADH- and citrate-bound states. Together, these structures depict ligand binding in both the active site and the cofactor-binding site while illustrating how a conserved helical motif confers NAD(P)H cofactor specificity. Unexpectedly, the NADH-bound structure also reveals a new conformation of the CTD, in which the domain has "flipped" upside-down, while directly binding the cofactor. By capturing these structural snapshots, this work not only expands the known range of HMGR domain movement but also provides valuable insight into the catalytic mechanism of this biologically important enzyme.


Subject(s)
Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductases, NAD-Dependent/chemistry , Protein Domains , Catalytic Domain , Citric Acid/metabolism , Crystallography, X-Ray , Delftia acidovorans/enzymology , Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductases, NAD-Dependent/isolation & purification , Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductases, NAD-Dependent/metabolism , Kinetics , NAD/metabolism , Pliability , Protein Binding , Protein Conformation
3.
Nat Cell Biol ; 16(4): 357-66, 2014 Apr.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-24658687

ABSTRACT

The YAP and TAZ mediators of the Hippo pathway (hereafter called YAP/TAZ) promote tissue proliferation and organ growth. However, how their biological properties intersect with cellular metabolism remains unexplained. Here, we show that YAP/TAZ activity is controlled by the SREBP/mevalonate pathway. Inhibition of the rate-limiting enzyme of this pathway (HMG-CoA reductase) by statins opposes YAP/TAZ nuclear localization and transcriptional responses. Mechanistically, the geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate produced by the mevalonate cascade is required for activation of Rho GTPases that, in turn, activate YAP/TAZ by inhibiting their phosphorylation and promoting their nuclear accumulation. The mevalonate-YAP/TAZ axis is required for proliferation and self-renewal of breast cancer cells. In Drosophila melanogaster, inhibition of mevalonate biosynthesis and geranylgeranylation blunts the eye overgrowth induced by Yorkie, the YAP/TAZ orthologue. In tumour cells, YAP/TAZ activation is promoted by increased levels of mevalonic acid produced by SREBP transcriptional activity, which is induced by its oncogenic cofactor mutant p53. These findings reveal an additional layer of YAP/TAZ regulation by metabolic cues.


Subject(s)
Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing/metabolism , Drosophila Proteins/metabolism , Mevalonic Acid/metabolism , Nuclear Proteins/metabolism , Phosphoproteins/metabolism , Sterol Regulatory Element Binding Proteins/metabolism , Trans-Activators/metabolism , Transcription Factors/genetics , Active Transport, Cell Nucleus/physiology , Acyltransferases , Animals , Breast Neoplasms/metabolism , Cell Proliferation , Drosophila Proteins/genetics , Drosophila melanogaster/metabolism , Female , HCT116 Cells , HEK293 Cells , Humans , Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors/pharmacology , Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductases, NAD-Dependent/metabolism , Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/metabolism , Mice , Nuclear Proteins/genetics , Phosphorylation/physiology , Polyisoprenyl Phosphates/biosynthesis , Polyisoprenyl Phosphates/metabolism , Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/genetics , Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/metabolism , Pyridines/pharmacology , RNA Interference , RNA, Small Interfering , Signal Transduction , Sterol Regulatory Element Binding Proteins/genetics , Trans-Activators/genetics , Transcription Factors/metabolism , Transcription, Genetic , Tumor Suppressor Proteins/genetics , YAP-Signaling Proteins , rho GTP-Binding Proteins/metabolism
4.
Metab Eng ; 13(5): 588-97, 2011 Sep.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-21810477

ABSTRACT

Expression of foreign pathways often results in suboptimal performance due to unintended factors such as introduction of toxic metabolites, cofactor imbalances or poor expression of pathway components. In this study we report a 120% improvement in the production of the isoprenoid-derived sesquiterpene, amorphadiene, produced by an engineered strain of Escherichia coli developed to express the native seven-gene mevalonate pathway from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Martin et al. 2003). This substantial improvement was made by varying only a single component of the pathway (HMG-CoA reductase) and subsequent host optimization to improve cofactor availability. We characterized and tested five variant HMG-CoA reductases obtained from publicly available genome databases with differing kinetic properties and cofactor requirements. The results of our in vitro and in vivo analyses of these enzymes implicate substrate inhibition of mevalonate kinase as an important factor in optimization of the engineered mevalonate pathway. Consequently, the NADH-dependent HMG-CoA reductase from Delftia acidovorans, which appeared to have the optimal kinetic parameters to balance HMG-CoA levels below the cellular toxicity threshold of E. coli and those of mevalonate below inhibitory concentrations for mevalonate kinase, was identified as the best producer for amorphadiene (54% improvement over the native pathway enzyme, resulting in 2.5mM or 520 mg/L of amorphadiene after 48 h). We further enhanced performance of the strain bearing the D. acidovorans HMG-CoA reductase by increasing the intracellular levels of its preferred cofactor (NADH) using a NAD(+)-dependent formate dehydrogenase from Candida boidinii, along with formate supplementation. This resulted in an overall improvement of the system by 120% resulting in 3.5mM or 700 mg/L amorphadiene after 48 h of fermentation. This comprehensive study incorporated analysis of several key parameters for metabolic design such as in vitro and in vivo kinetic performance of variant enzymes, intracellular levels of protein expression, in-pathway substrate inhibition and cofactor management to enable the observed improvements. These metrics may be applied to a broad range of heterologous pathways for improving the production of biologically derived compounds.


Subject(s)
Bacterial Proteins , Delftia acidovorans , Escherichia coli , Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductases, NAD-Dependent/biosynthesis , Mevalonic Acid/metabolism , Organisms, Genetically Modified , Bacterial Proteins/biosynthesis , Bacterial Proteins/genetics , Candida/enzymology , Candida/genetics , Delftia acidovorans/enzymology , Delftia acidovorans/genetics , Escherichia coli/genetics , Escherichia coli/growth & development , Escherichia coli/metabolism , Formate Dehydrogenases/biosynthesis , Formate Dehydrogenases/genetics , Formates/metabolism , Formates/pharmacology , Fungal Proteins/biosynthesis , Fungal Proteins/genetics , Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductases, NAD-Dependent/genetics , Organisms, Genetically Modified/genetics , Organisms, Genetically Modified/growth & development , Organisms, Genetically Modified/metabolism , Phosphotransferases (Alcohol Group Acceptor)/biosynthesis , Phosphotransferases (Alcohol Group Acceptor)/genetics , Polycyclic Sesquiterpenes , Sesquiterpenes/metabolism
5.
Nefrología (Madr.) ; 21(5): 497-500, sept.-oct. 2001. ilus
Article in Spanish | IBECS | ID: ibc-124339

ABSTRACT

Un paciente de 67 años en tratamiento con gemfibrozil durante un año desarrolló una rabdomiólisis con un fracaso renal anúrico al añadirse cerivastatina. La historia clínica y las investigaciones serológicas descartaron razonablemente otras causas de rabdomiólisis. Se suspendió la medicación y se inició hemodiálisis hasta que reapareció la diuresis 14 días después. La función renal mejoró progresivamente hasta una creatinina de 1,2 mg/dl a los dos meses. La cerivastatina por superfil farmacocinético presenta menor capacidad de interacción farmacológica que otras estatinas. El desarrollo de rabdomiólisis y fracaso renal agudo secundario a la combinación de fibratos y cerivastatina, es una complicación infrecuente ya que sólo existen dos casos. Este paciente ilustra la potencial gravedad de la asociación de fibratos y cerivastatina. Cuando se precise esta asociación es necesario evitar otros agentes nefrotóxicos y miopáticos así como controlar periódicamente la CK (AU)


A 67-year-old man treated with gemfibrozil for a year development rhabdomyolysis and anuric renal failure after addition of cerivastatin. The clinical features and serological studies ruled out other causes of rhabdomyolysis. Drugs were stopped and hemodialysis was carried on for 14 days until diuresis occurred. The renal function improved steadily to a serum creatinine of 1.2 mg/dl two monthslater. On the basis of its pharmacokinetic profile cerivastat in appears to have less interactions than other statins. There are only two reports of rhabdomyolysis and acute renal failure due to fibrates and cerivastatin combination. This patient shows the potential risk of a fibrates-cerivastatin combination. When this association is required it is necessary to avoid other nephrotoxic and myopathic factors and to monitor CK levels closely (AU)


Subject(s)
Humans , Male , Female , Aged , Acute Kidney Injury/chemically induced , Anuria/chemically induced , Drug Therapy , Gemfibrozil/adverse effects , Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductases, NAD-Dependent/adverse effects , Hypolipidemic Agents/adverse effects , Pyridines/adverse effects , Rhabdomyolysis/chemically induced
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