Structural and catalytic characterization of Blastochloris viridis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa homospermidine synthases supports the essential role of cation-π interaction.

Polyamines influence medically relevant processes in the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, including virulence, biofilm formation and susceptibility to antibiotics. Although homospermidine synthase (HSS) is part of the polyamine metabolism in various strains of P. aeruginosa, neither its role nor its structure has been examined so far. The reaction mechanism of the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)-dependent bacterial HSS has previously been characterized based on crystal structures of Blastochloris viridis HSS (BvHSS). This study presents the crystal structure of P. aeruginosa HSS (PaHSS) in complex with its substrate putrescine. A high structural similarity between PaHSS and BvHSS with conservation of the catalytically relevant residues is demonstrated, qualifying BvHSS as a model for mechanistic studies of PaHSS. Following this strategy, crystal structures of single-residue variants of BvHSS are presented together with activity assays of PaHSS, BvHSS and BvHSS variants. For efficient homospermidine production, acidic residues are required at the entrance to the binding pocket (`ionic slide') and near the active site (`inner amino site') to attract and bind the substrate putrescine via salt bridges. The tryptophan residue at the active site stabilizes cationic reaction components by cation-π interaction, as inferred from the interaction geometry between putrescine and the indole ring plane. Exchange of this tryptophan for other amino acids suggests a distinct catalytic requirement for an aromatic interaction partner with a highly negative electrostatic potential. These findings substantiate the structural and mechanistic knowledge on bacterial HSS, a potential target for antibiotic design.

Ultrafast structural changes within a photosynthetic reaction centre.

Photosynthetic reaction centres harvest the energy content of sunlight by transporting electrons across an energy-transducing biological membrane. Here we use time-resolved serial femtosecond crystallography1 using an X-ray free-electron laser2 to observe light-induced structural changes in the photosynthetic reaction centre of Blastochloris viridis on a timescale of picoseconds. Structural perturbations first occur at the special pair of chlorophyll molecules of the photosynthetic reaction centre that are photo-oxidized by light. Electron transfer to the menaquinone acceptor on the opposite side of the membrane induces a movement of this cofactor together with lower amplitude protein rearrangements. These observations reveal how proteins use conformational dynamics to stabilize the charge-separation steps of electron-transfer reactions.

An uncharacterized clade in the DMSO reductase family of molybdenum oxidoreductases is a new type of chlorate reductase.

The dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) reductase family of enzymes has many subfamilies catalysing unique biogeochemical reactions. It also has many uncharacterized subfamilies. Comparative genomics predicted one such subfamily to participate in a key step of the chlorine cycle because of a conserved genetic association with chlorite dismutase, implying they produce chlorite through chlorate or perchlorate reduction. We determined the activity of the uncharacterized enzyme by comparing strains in the phototrophic genus Rhodoplanes that encode either a typical perchlorate reductase or the uncharacterized enzyme. Rpl. piscinae and Rpl. elegans, which encode perchlorate reductase, grew by using perchlorate as an electron acceptor. In contrast, Rpl. roseus, which encodes the uncharacterized enzyme, grew by chlorate reduction but not by perchlorate reduction. This is the first report of perchlorate and chlorate being used as respiratory electron acceptors by phototrophs. When both chlorate and perchlorate were present, Rpl. roseus consumed only chlorate. Highly concentrated Rpl. roseus cells showed some perchlorate consumption, but chlorate consumption occurred at a 10-fold higher rate. Together, these genomic and physiological data define a new group of chlorate reductases. Some organisms encode both this chlorate reductase and a perchlorate reductase, raising new questions about the physiology and evolution of chlorine oxyanion respiration.

Unfolding pathway and intermolecular interactions of the cytochrome subunit in the bacterial photosynthetic reaction center.

Precise folding of photosynthetic proteins and organization of multicomponent assemblies to form functional entities are fundamental to efficient photosynthetic electron transfer. The bacteriochlorophyll b-producing purple bacterium Blastochloris viridis possesses a simplified photosynthetic apparatus. The light-harvesting (LH) antenna complex surrounds the photosynthetic reaction center (RC) to form the RC-LH1 complex. A non-membranous tetraheme cytochrome (4Hcyt) subunit is anchored at the periplasmic surface of the RC, functioning as the electron donor to transfer electrons from mobile electron carriers to the RC. Here, we use atomic force microscopy (AFM) and single-molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) to probe the long-range organization of the photosynthetic apparatus from Blc. viridis and the unfolding pathway of the 4Hcyt subunit in its native supramolecular assembly with its functional partners. AFM images reveal that the RC-LH1 complexes are densely organized in the photosynthetic membranes, with restricted lateral protein diffusion. Unfolding of the 4Hcyt subunit represents a multi-step process and the unfolding forces of the 4Hcyt α-helices are approximately 121 picoNewtons. Pulling of 4Hcyt could also result in the unfolding of the RC L subunit that binds with the N-terminus of 4Hcyt, suggesting strong interactions between RC subunits. This study provides new insights into the protein folding and interactions of photosynthetic multicomponent complexes, which are essential for their structural and functional integrity to conduct photosynthetic electron flow.

A quinone-dependent dehydrogenase and two NADPH-dependent aldo/keto reductases detoxify deoxynivalenol in wheat via epimerization in a Devosia strain.

The Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is typically controlled by fungicides. Here, we report DON detoxification using enzymes from the highly active Devosia strain D6-9 which degraded DON at 2.5 µg/min/108 cells. Strain D6-9 catabolized DON to 3-keto-DON and 3-epi-DON, completely removing DON in wheat. Genome analysis of three Devosia strains (D6-9, D17, and D13584), with strain D6-9 transcriptomes, identified three genes responsible for DON epimerization. One gene encodes a quinone-dependent DON dehydrogenase QDDH which oxidized DON into 3-keto-DON. Two genes encode the NADPH-dependent aldo/keto reductases AKR13B2 and AKR6D1 that convert 3-keto-DON into 3-epi-DON. Recombinant proteins expressed in Escherichia coli efficiently degraded DON in wheat grains. Molecular docking and site-directed mutagenesis revealed that residues S497, E499, and E535 function in QDDH's DON-oxidizing activity. These results advance potential microbial and enzymatic elimination of DON in agricultural samples and lend insight into the underlying mechanisms and molecular evolution of DON detoxification.

Enzymatic degradation of deoxynivalenol by a novel bacterium, Pelagibacterium halotolerans ANSP101.

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a toxic secondary metabolite produced by Fusarium species that mainly infests cereals such as wheat and corn, threatens human and livestock health. The present study describes the characterization of a novel bacterial strain, Pelagibacterium halotolerans ANSP101 which is capable of transforming DON to less-toxic product 3-keto-deoxynivalenol by the oxidation of the C3 hydroxyl group. Strain ANSP101 was isolated from a seawater sample from a depth of 55 m in Chinese Bohai sea. The strain was identified as Pelagibacterium halotolerans by morphology characterization and 16S rDNA gene sequencing. The DON degrading activity of strain ANSP101 was predominantly attributed to the bacterial cell lysate. Besides, the cell lysate was sensitive to sodium dodecyl sulfate, heat, and proteinase K treatment, indicating that the intracellular proteins or enzymes are responsible for the DON degradation. The optimal temperature and pH for the maximal degradation of DON were 40 °C and pH 8.0 by the cell lysate. These results provide the potential use of P. halotolerans ANSP101 as a detoxification agent for DON decontamination in cereals and feed.

Well-based crystallization of lipidic cubic phase microcrystals for serial X-ray crystallography experiments.

Serial crystallography is having an increasing impact on structural biology. This emerging technique opens up new possibilities for studying protein structures at room temperature and investigating structural dynamics using time-resolved X-ray diffraction. A limitation of the method is the intrinsic need for large quantities of well ordered micrometre-sized crystals. Here, a method is presented to screen for conditions that produce microcrystals of membrane proteins in the lipidic cubic phase using a well-based crystallization approach. A key advantage over earlier approaches is that the progress of crystal formation can be easily monitored without interrupting the crystallization process. In addition, the protocol can be scaled up to efficiently produce large quantities of crystals for serial crystallography experiments. Using the well-based crystallization methodology, novel conditions for the growth of showers of microcrystals of three different membrane proteins have been developed. Diffraction data are also presented from the first user serial crystallography experiment performed at MAX IV Laboratory.

The enzymatic detoxification of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol: identification of DepA from the DON epimerization pathway.

The biological detoxification of mycotoxins, including deoxynivalenol (DON), represents a very promising approach to address the challenging problem of cereal grain contamination. The recent discovery of Devosia mutans 17-2-E-8 (Devosia spp. 17-2-E-8), a bacterial isolate capable of transforming DON to the non-toxic stereoisomer 3-epi-deoxynivalenol, along with earlier reports of bacterial species capable of oxidizing DON to 3-keto-DON, has generated interest in the possible mechanism and enzyme(s) involved. An understanding of these details could pave the way for novel strategies to manage this widely present toxin. It was previously shown that DON epimerization proceeds through a two-step biocatalysis. Significantly, this report describes the identification of the first enzymatic step in this pathway. The enzyme, a dehydrogenase responsible for the selective oxidation of DON at the C3 position, was shown to readily convert DON to 3-keto-DON, a less toxic intermediate in the DON epimerization pathway. Furthermore, this study provides insights into the PQQ dependence of the enzyme. This enzyme may be part of a feasible strategy for DON mitigation within the near future.

Characterization of a novel metallo-ß-lactamases fold hydrolase from Pelagibacterium halotolerans, a marine halotolerant bacterium isolated from East China Sea.

In this study, a novel metallo-ß-lactamases fold hydrolase PH-1 was identified from Pelagibacterium halotolerans B2(T). This novel member of the family Hyphomicrobiaceae was isolated from the East China Sea. In silico analysis demonstrated that PH-1 and its relative homologues cluster in a unique branch and constitute a new subgroup among MBLs. PH-1 was cloned and overexpressed in Escherichia coli BL21 in a soluble form. SDS-PAGE, MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS, and size-exclusion chromatography analysis demonstrated that the PH-1 was a monomer with molecular weight of about 29 kDa. Substrate specificity study showed PH-1 preferred penicillin type ß-lactams and exhibited maximum activity toward penicillin-G. Additionally, our experiments also revealed that PH-1 was a halotolerant enzyme since it is active under 4 M NaCl. The enzyme activity of PH-1 was negatively affected by 1 mM Mn(2+) and EDTA. These observations lay a foundation for further study of MBLs from marine bacterium.

Fragment molecular orbital study on electron tunneling mechanisms in bacterial photosynthetic reaction center.

The tunneling mechanisms of electron transfers (ETs) in photosynthetic reaction center of Blastochloris viridis are studied by the ab initio fragment molecular orbital (FMO) method combined with the generalized Mulliken-Hush (GMH) and the bridge Green function (GF) calculations of the electronic coupling T(DA) and the tunneling current method for the ET pathway analysis at the fragment-based resolution. For the ET from batctriopheophytin (H(L)) to menaquinone (MQ), a major tunneling current through Trp M250 and a minor back flow via Ala M215, Ala M216, and His M217 are quantified. For the ET from MQ to ubiquinone, the major tunneling pathway via the nonheme Fe(2+) and His L190 is identified as well as minor pathway via His M217 and small back flows involving His L230, Glu M232, and His M264. At the given molecular structure from X-ray experiment, the spin state of the Fe(2+) ion, its replacement by Zn(2+), or its removal are found to affect the T(DA) value by factors within 2.2. The calculated T(DA) values, together with experimentally estimated values of the driving force and the reorganization energy, give the ET rates in reasonable agreement with experiments.

Structural characterization of bacterioferritin from Blastochloris viridis.

Iron storage and elimination of toxic ferrous iron are the responsibility of bacterioferritins in bacterial species. Bacterioferritins are capable of oxidizing iron using molecular oxygen and import iron ions into the large central cavity of the protein, where they are stored in a mineralized form. We isolated, crystallized bacterioferritin from the microaerophilic/anaerobic, purple non-sulfur bacterium Blastochloris viridis and determined its amino acid sequence and X-ray structure. The structure and sequence revealed similarity to other purple bacterial species with substantial differences in the pore regions. Static 3- and 4-fold pores do not allow the passage of iron ions even though structural dynamics may assist the iron gating. On the other hand the B-pore is open to water and larger ions in its native state. In order to study the mechanism of iron import, multiple soaking experiments were performed. Upon Fe(II) and urea treatment the ferroxidase site undergoes reorganization as seen in bacterioferritin from Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. When soaking with Fe(II) only, a closely bound small molecular ligand is observed close to Fe(1) and the coordination of Glu94 to Fe(2) changes from bidentate to monodentate. DFT calculations indicate that the bound ligand is most likely a water or a hydroxide molecule representing a product complex. On the other hand the different soaking treatments did not modify the conformation of other pore regions.

Carotenoids in Rhodoplanes species: variation of compositions and substrate specificity of predicted carotenogenesis enzymes.

Phototrophic bacteria necessarily contain carotenoids for photosynthesis, and accumulate unusual carotenoids in some cases. The carotenoids in all established species of Rhodoplanes (Rpl.), a representative of phototrophic genera, were identified using spectroscopic methods. The major carotenoid was spirilloxanthin in Rpl. roseus and Rpl. serenus, and rhodopin in "Rpl. cryptolactis". Rpl. elegans contained rhodopin, anhydrorhodovibrin, and spirilloxanthin. Rpl. pokkaliisoli contained not only rhodopin but also 1,1'-dihydroxylycopene and 3,4,3',4'-tetrahydrospirilloxanthin. These variations in carotenoid composition suggested that Rpl. roseus and Rpl. serenus had normal substrate specificity of the carotenogenesis enzymes of CrtC (acyclic carotene 1,2-hydratase), CrtD (acyclic carotenoid 3,4-desaturase), and CrtF (acyclic 1-hydroxycarotenoid methyltransferase). On the other hand, CrtC of Rpl. elegans, CrtD of "Rpl. cryptolactis", and CrtC, CrtD, and CrtF of Rpl. pokkaliisoli might have different characteristics from the usual activity of these normal enzymes in the normal spirilloxanthin pathway. These results suggest that the variation of carotenoids among the species of Rhodoplanes results from modified substrate specificity of the carotenogenesis enzymes involved.

Cloning, expression and characterization of a halotolerant esterase from a marine bacterium Pelagibacterium halotolerans B2T.

An esterase PE10 (279 aa) from Pelagibacterium halotolerans B2(T) was cloned and overexpressed in Escherichia coli Rosetta in a soluble form. The deduced protein was 29.91 kDa and the phylogenetic analysis of the deduced amino acids sequence showed it represented a new family of lipolytic enzymes. The recombinant protein was purified by Ni-NTA affinity chromatography column and the characterization showed its optimal temperature and pH were 45 °C and pH 7.5, respectively. Substrate specificity study showed PE10 preferred short chain p-nitrophenyl esters and exhibited maximum activity toward p-nitrophenyl acetate. In addition, PE10 was a halotolerant esterase as it was still active under 4 M NaCl. Three-dimensional modeling of PE10 suggested that the high negative electrostatic potential on the surface may relevant to its tolerance to high salt environment. With this halotolerance property, PE10 could be a candidate for industrial use.

User-loaded SlipChip for equipment-free multiplexed nanoliter-scale experiments.

This paper describes a microfluidic approach to perform multiplexed nanoliter-scale experiments by combining a sample with multiple different reagents, each at multiple mixing ratios. This approach employs a user-loaded, equipment-free SlipChip. The mixing ratios, characterized by diluting a fluorescent dye, could be controlled by the volume of each of the combined wells. The SlipChip design was validated on an approximately 12 nL scale by screening the conditions for crystallization of glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase from Burkholderia pseudomallei against 48 different reagents; each reagent was tested at 11 different mixing ratios, for a total of 528 crystallization trials. The total consumption of the protein sample was approximately 10 microL. Conditions for crystallization were successfully identified. The crystallization experiments were successfully scaled up in well plates using the conditions identified in the SlipChip. Crystals were characterized by X-ray diffraction and provided a protein structure in a different space group and at a higher resolution than the structure obtained by conventional methods. In this work, this user-loaded SlipChip has been shown to reliably handle fluids of diverse physicochemical properties, such as viscosities and surface tensions. Quantitative measurements of fluorescent intensities and high-resolution imaging were straighforward to perform in these glass SlipChips. Surface chemistry was controlled using fluorinated lubricating fluid, analogous to the fluorinated carrier fluid used in plug-based crystallization. Thus, we expect this approach to be valuable in a number of areas beyond protein crystallization, especially those areas where droplet-based microfluidic systems have demonstrated successes, including measurements of enzyme kinetics and blood coagulation, cell-based assays, and chemical reactions.

Complete biodegradation of atrazine by a microbial community isolated from a naturally derived river ecosystem (microcosm).

A microbial community, designated as AN4, capable of mineralizing the herbicide atrazine was isolated from a model river ecosystem (microcosm). The profile of degradation of atrazine by the AN4 community seemed to well reflect what occurred in the microcosm: rapid degradation of atrazine and transient accumulation of cyanuric acid, followed by relatively slow mineralization. The community comprised multiple phylogenetically distinct microbial strains, and the microbes were suspended and probably aggregated in the water phase of the microcosm. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) revealed that multiple bacterial strains exist in the AN4 community, and we successfully isolated two strains, which belonged to the genera Nocardioides and Pedomicrobium. Nocardioides sp. strain AN4-4 degraded atrazine to cyanuric acid and harbored the trzN and atzC genes encoding the s-triazine-degrading enzymes. This strain also degraded other chloro-substituted s-triazines like simazine and propazine, but it showed little degradability for simetryn (a methylthio-substituted s-triazine). Additionally, strain AN4-4 could grow on basal salt agar containing ethylamine or isopropylamine as the only carbon and nitrogen sources. Another strain, Pedomicrobium sp. strain AN4-9 could mineralize cyanuric acid alone. Therefore, we found that the coexistence of these two community members functionally serves to completely biodegrade atrazine.

Simulation of the electron transfer between the tetraheme subunit and the special pair of the photosynthetic reaction center using a microstate description.

Charge transfer through biological macromolecules is essential for many biological processes such as, for instance, photosynthesis and respiration. Protons or electrons are transferred between titratable residues or redox-active cofactors, respectively. Transfer rates between these sites depend on the current charge configuration of neighboring sites. Here, we formulate the kinetics of charge-transfer systems in a microstate formalism. A unique transfer rate constant can be assigned to the interconversion of microstates. Mutual interactions between sites participating in the transfer reactions are naturally taken into account. The formalism is applied to the kinetics of electron transfer in the tetraheme subunit and the special pair of the reaction center of Blastochloris viridis. It is shown that continuum electrostatic calculations can be used in combination with an existing empirical rate law to obtain electron-transfer rate constants. The re-reduction kinetics of the photo-oxidized special pair simulated in a microstate formalism is shown to be in good agreement with experimental data. A flux analysis is used to follow the individual electron-transfer steps.

A recombinant diheme SoxAX cytochrome - implications for the relationship between EPR signals and modified heme-ligands.

The multiheme SoxAX proteins are notable for their unusual heme ligation (His/Cys-persulfide in the SoxA subunit) and the complexity of their EPR spectra. The diheme SoxAX protein from Starkeya novella has been expressed using Rhodobacter capsulatus as a host expression system. rSoxAX was correctly formed in the periplasm of the host and contained heme c in similar amounts as the native SoxAX. ESI-MS showed that the full length rSoxA, in spite of never having undergone catalytic turnover, existed in several forms, with the two major forms having masses of 28687 +/- 4 and 28718 +/- 4 Da. The latter form exceeds the expected mass of rSoxA by 31 +/- 4 Da, a mass close to that of a sulfur atom and indicating that a fraction of the recombinant protein contains a cysteine persulfide modification. EPR spectra of rSoxAX contained all four heme-dependent EPR signals (LS1a, LS1b, LS2, LS3) found in the native SoxAX proteins isolated from bacteria grown under sulfur chemolithotrophic conditions. Exposure of the recombinant SoxAX to different sulfur compounds lead to changes in the SoxA mass profile as determined by ESI while maintaining a fully oxidized SoxAX visible spectrum. Thiosulfate, the proposed SoxAX substrate, did not cause any mass changes while after exposure to dimethylsulfoxide a +112 +/- 4 Da form of SoxA became dominant in the mass spectrum.