Rubella transmissibility and reproduction number (Ro): A critical appraisal of the prospects for its control in Nigeria.

Rubella is a highly contagious disease of public health importance that is endemic in Nigeria. Rubella with its devastating sequel, congenital rubella syndrome, is a neglected disease with no surveillance system in place and no national incidence figure in Nigeria. This article, therefore, seeks to do reviews of rubella transmissibility, its reproduction number and the prospects for its control in Nigeria. This is a review of literatures with triangulation of findings along the objectives and the use of available secondary data to analyse the prospects of rubella control in Nigeria. Data were analysed and presented with appropriate tables and charts. A number of factors can fuel rubella transmission causing increase in reproduction number, Ro.The high birth rate, poor rubella surveillance and non-inclusion of rubella vaccines in the routine vaccination schedule among others are some of the factors working against a good outlook for rubella control in Nigeria. The Nigerian government should control the growing population, ensure a robust surveillance for rubella and incorporate rubella-containing vaccine in the immunisation schedule for infants with regular vaccination campaigns for older children and adults.

Congenital Cytomegalovirus Prevention, Awareness and Policy Recommendations - A Scoping Study.

BACKGROUND: Congenital cytomegalovirus (cCMV) is known to cause childhood deafness, neurodevelopmental disability and death. Simple hygiene precautions are effective in reducing maternal risk of CMV infection. OBJECTIVE: To review i) awareness of CMV infection and available primary prevention strategies both in the community and amongst health professionals ii) available cCMV information sources in the literature, grey literature and published professional guidelines. METHODS: Scoping study to i) identify literature pertaining to cCMV awareness amongst parents and health professionals using MedLine and CINAHL databases via EBSCO ii) review one high income country's guidelines and recommendations regarding cCMV infection and pregnancy (example country Australia) iii) grey literature for parental information. RESULTS: Worldwide awareness of cCMV and of available prevention strategies amongst women and health professionals are poor. Findings internationally suggest at least half of maternity care health professionals do not routinely provide advice to women regarding simple hygiene precautions that can reduce their risk of infection during pregnancy. Though information resources regarding cCMV are available, they are frequently not included within general healthy pregnancy advice and require individuals to search for 'congenital cytomegalovirus'. CONCLUSION: cCMV is a preventable cause of serious congenital disability and death. Prevention opportunities are being missed because most women are not aware of cCMV or how to reduce their risk of infection in pregnancy, in part due to poor health professional awareness. New strategies to disseminate cCMV information to the community and to support health professionals to embed cCMV advice within routine pregnancy counselling is required.

Implementing prevention policies for mother-to-child transmission of HIV in rural Malawi, South Africa and United Republic of Tanzania, 2013­2016

Objective To assess adoption of World Health Organization (WHO) guidance into national policies for prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and to monitor implementation of guidelines at facility level in rural Malawi, South Africa and the United Republic of Tanzania. Methods : We summarized national PMTCT policies and WHO guidance for 15 indicators across the cascades of maternal and infant care over 2013­2016. Two survey rounds were conducted (2013­2015 and 2015­2016) in 46 health facilities serving five health and demographic surveillance system populations. We administered structured questionnaires to facility managers to describe service delivery. We report the proportions of facilities implementing each indicator and the frequency and durations of stock-outs of supplies, by site and survey round.Findings In all countries, national policies influencing the maternal and infant PMTCT cascade of care aligned with WHO guidelines by 2016; most inter-country policy variations concerned linkage to routine HIV care. The proportion of facilities delivering post-test counselling, same-day antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation, antenatal care and ART provision in the same building, and Option B+ increased or remained at 100% in all sites. Progress in implementing policies on infant diagnosis and treatment varied across sites. Stock-outs of HIV test kits or antiretroviral drugs in the past year declined overall, but were reported by at least one facility per site in both rounds. Conclusion Progress has been made in implementing PMTCT policy in these settings. However, persistent gaps across the infant cascade of care and supply-chain challenges, risk undermining infant HIV elimination goals

Assessment of State Perinatal Hepatitis B Prevention Laws.

INTRODUCTION: Identifying pregnant women with hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection for post-exposure prophylaxis of their infants is critical to preventing mother-to-child transmission of HBV infection. HBV infection in infancy results in premature death from chronic liver disease or cancer in 25% of affected infants. Universal screening of pregnant women for HBV infection is the standard of care, and in many states is supported by laws for screening and reporting these infections to public health. No recent assessment of state screening and reporting laws for HBV infection has been published. METHODS: In 2014, the authors analyzed laws current through December 31, 2013 from U.S. jurisdictions (50 states and the District of Columbia) related to HBV infection and hepatitis B surface antigen screening and reporting requirements generally and for pregnant women specifically. RESULTS: All states require reporting of cases of HBV infection. Twenty-six states require pregnant women to be screened. Thirty-three states require public health reporting of HBV infections in pregnant women, but only 12 states require reporting pregnancy status of women with HBV infection. CONCLUSIONS: This assessment revealed significant variability in laws related to screening and reporting of HBV infection among pregnant women in the U.S. Implementing comprehensive HBV infection screening and reporting laws for pregnant women may facilitate identifying HBV-infected pregnant women and preventing HBV infection in their infants.

Conocimiento de los profesionales de la salud en la prevención de la transmisión vertical del VIH en una maternidad pública brasileña / O conhecimento dos profissionais de saúde na profilaxia da transmissão vertical do HIV em uma maternidade pública brasileira / The knowledge of health professionals in prophylaxis of HIV vertical transmission in a Brazilian public maternity

El objetivo fue evaluar el conocimiento de los profesionales de la salud que atienden a las mujeres embarazadas VIH positivas, en lo que se refiere a las medidas profilácticas del riesgo de transmisión vertical del VIH. Estudio transversal con la participación de 25 profesionales de la salud. La recolección de datos se llevó a cabo entre abril y junio de 2012 en una maternidad públicao en Goiás, Brasil. De los profesionales encuestados el 76% tenían un conocimiento inadecuado sobre la prueba del VIH en mujeres embarazadas, el 80% desconocía a qué edad gestacional se realiza la cesárea electiva cuando la carga viral es mayor de 1000 copias / ml, el 66% no sabe cuál es la dosis recomendada de ataque AZT y el tiempo transcurrido antes de la entrega, el 84% no sabe cuál es el método adecuado para la inhibición de la lactancia. Se concluye que es necesaria la implementación de estrategias dirigidas a la formación de los profesionales de la salud que atienden a las mujeres embarazadas VIH-positivas en su lugar de trabajo (AU)

Objetivou-se avaliar o conhecimento dos profissionais de saúde que cuidam de gestantes HIV positivo, quanto as medidas profiláticas do risco de transmissão vertical do HIV. Estudo transversal envolvendo 25 profissionais de saúde. A coleta de dados realizou-se de abril a junho de 2012 em uma maternidade pública do Estado de Goiás, Brasil. Dos profissionais investigados 76% apresentaram conhecimento inadequado sobre o teste anti-HIV nas gestantes, 80% desconheciam com que idade gestacional realiza-se a cesárea eletiva quando carga viral for superior a 1000 cópias/ml, 66% não sabiam a dose para ataque do AZT e o tempo de no mínimo duas horas a ser utilizado antes do parto, 84% não conheciam qual o método indicado para inibição da lactação. Conclui -se como necessárias a implantação de estratégias que visem a capacitação dos profissionais de saúde que cuidam das gestantes HIV positivo em seu ambiente de trabalho

The objective was to assess the knowledge of health professionals who care for pregnant HIV positive, as prophylactic measures the risk of vertical HIV transmission. Cross-sectional study involving 25 health professionals. Data collection took place from April to June of 2012 in a public hospital in the State of Goiás, Brazil. Of the professionals surveyed 76% had inadequate knowledge about HIV testing in pregnant women, 80% unaware that gestational age is held elective caesarean section when viral load is greater than 1000 cop / ml, 66% could not attack dose for AZT and the elapsed time before delivery, 84% did not know which method is suitable for inhibition of lactation. Concludes as necessary the implementation of strategies aimed at training health professionals who care for HIV positive pregnant women in the workplace (AU)

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of syphilis and HIV in China: What drives political prioritization and what can this tell us about promoting dual elimination?

OBJECTIVE: The present study aims to identify reasons behind the lower political priority of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of syphilis compared with HIV, despite the former presenting a much larger and growing burden than the latter, in China, over the 20years prior to 2010. METHODS: We undertook a comparative policy analysis, based on informant interviews and documentation review of control of MTCT of syphilis and HIV, as well as nonparticipant observation of relevant meetings/trainings to investigate agenda-setting prior to 2010. RESULTS: We identified several factors contributing to the lower priority accorded to MTCT of syphilis: relative neglect at a global level, dearth of international financial and technical support, poorly unified national policy community with weak accountability mechanisms, insufficient understanding of the epidemic and policy options, and a prevailing negative framing of syphilis that resulted in significant stigmatization. CONCLUSION: A dual elimination goal will only be reached when prioritization of MTCT of syphilis is enhanced in both the international and national agendas.

[Human immunodeficiency virus infection in children and adolescents: more of 25 years in Chile]. / Infección por virus de inmunodeficiencia humana en niños y adolescentes: Más de 25 años en Chile.

In this article, the following topics about pediatric HIV infection and AIDS are summarized: a description of pathogenic and clinical aspects of HIV infection in children, the clues for its suspicion, the preventive strategies to avoid the vertical transmission of HIV, the study to certify or to rule out the HIV infection in infants and children, the main recommendations of antiretroviral treatment and how to prevent and treat manifestations of HIV infection. Besides, the evolution in Chile of the pediatric HIV infection is described with details, since the first child detected with AIDS in 1987, infected by transfusion and the first infants (twin) diagnosed in 1989, infected by vertical twins transmission, to 2014, with the progress obtained, snags, hopes and challenges addressed.

Infección por virus de inmunodeficiencia humana en niños y adolescentes: Más de 25 años en Chile / Human immunodeficiency virus infection in children and adolescents: More of 25 years in Chile

In this article, the following topics about pediatric HIV infection and AIDS are summarized: a description of pathogenic and clinical aspects of HIV infection in children, the clues for its suspicion, the preventive strategies to avoid the vertical transmission of HIV, the study to certify or to rule out the HIV infection in infants and children, the main recommendations of antiretroviral treatment and how to prevent and treat manifestations of HIV infection. Besides, the evolution in Chile of the pediatric HIV infection is described with details, since the first child detected with AIDS in 1987, infected by transfusion and the first infants (twin) diagnosed in 1989, infected by vertical twins transmission, to 2014, with the progress obtained, snags, hopes and challenges addressed.

En este artículo se describe en forma resumida la patogénesis y aspectos clínicos de la infección por VIH en niños, las claves para su sospecha, las medidas preventivas para evitar su transmisión vertical, el estudio necesario para certificar o descartar la infección en lactantes y niños mayores, y las principales recomendaciones para la terapia anti-retroviral y cómo tratar y prevenir las manifestaciones de la infección por VIH. Se relata a continuación, en forma detallada, la evolución que ha experimentado en Chile la infección por VIH en pediatría, desde el primer caso pesquisado en el año 1987, producto de una transfusión sanguínea, y los primeros lactantes (mellizos) detectados en 1989, que fueran infectados en forma vertical, hasta el año 2014, con el progreso obtenido, las trabas, esperanzas y desafíos enfrentados.

Maternal transmission of HIV infection: a crime against my child?

This paper considers whether section 20 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861, which has been used to prosecute those who transmit the HIV virus in sexual relationships (eg, R v Konzani), could be used to prosecute women (in England and Wales) who transmit the virus to their child during pregnancy, delivery or via breast feeding. The discussion concludes that prosecution for transmission in pregnancy/delivery is unlikely. However, it is argued that there might be scope to prosecute the transmission of the virus via breast feeding in the event that there was sufficient evidence. However, this would also be subject to the Crown Prosecution Service deeming such a prosecution to be in the public interest. The paper does not seek to examine the ethical issues involved. However, it acknowledges that this issue is part of a broader debate as to whether, and if so, when, it is appropriate to criminalise the transmission of disease.

When courts intervene: public health, legal and ethical issues surrounding HIV, pregnant women, and newborn infants.

Ninety-three percent of pediatric AIDS cases are the result of perinatal HIV transmission, a disease that is almost entirely preventable with early intervention, which reduces the risk of perinatal HIV infection from 25% to <2%. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and the American Academy of Pediatrics both recommend routine HIV testing of all pregnant women and at-risk newborn infants. When pregnant women decline HIV testing and/or treatment, public health, legal, and ethical dilemmas can result. Federal courts consistently uphold a woman's right to refuse medical testing and treatment, even though it may benefit her fetus/newborn infant. Federal courts also reliably respect the rights of parents to make health care decisions for their newborn infants, which may include declining medical testing and treatment. Confusing the issue of HIV testing and treatment, however, is the fact that there is no definitive United States Supreme Court ruling on the issue. State laws and standards vary widely and serve as guiding principles for practicing clinicians, who must be vigilant of ongoing legal challenges and changes in the states in which they practice. We present a case of an HIV-positive pregnant woman who declined treatment and then testing or treatment of her newborn infant. Ultimately, the legal system intervened. Given the rarity of such cases, we use this as a primer for the practicing clinician to highlight the public health, legal, and ethical issues surrounding prenatal and newborn infant HIV testing and treatment in the United States, including summarizing key state-to-state regulatory differences.

Canadian HIV Pregnancy Planning Guidelines: No. 278, June 2012.

OBJECTIVE: Four main clinical issues need to be considered for HIV-positive individuals and couples with respect to pregnancy planning and counselling: (1) pre-conceptional health; (2) transmission from mother to infant, which has been significantly reduced by combined antiretroviral therapy; (3) transmission between partners during conception, which requires different prevention and treatment strategies depending on the status and needs of those involved; and (4) management of infertility issues. The objective of the Canadian HIV Pregnancy Planning Guidelines is to provide clinical information and recommendations for health care providers to assist HIV-positive individuals and couples with their fertility and pregnancy planning decisions. These guidelines are evidence- and community-based and flexible, and they take into account diverse and intersecting local/population needs and the social determinants of health. OUTCOMES: Intended outcomes are (1) reduction of risk of vertical transmission and horizontal transmission of HIV, (2) improvement of maternal and infant health outcomes in the presence of HIV, (3) reduction of the stigma associated with pregnancy and HIV, and (4) increased access to pregnancy planning and fertility services. EVIDENCE: PubMed and Medline were searched for articles published in English or French to December 20, 2010, using the following terms: "HIV" and "pregnancy" or "pregnancy planning" or "fertility" or "reproduction" or "infertility" or "parenthood" or "insemination" or "artificial insemination" or "sperm washing" or "IVF" or "ICSI" or "IUI." Other search terms included "HIV" and 'horizontal transmission" or "sexual transmission" or "serodiscordant." The following conference databases were also searched: Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, International AIDS Conference, International AIDS Society, Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, the Canadian Association of HIV/AIDS Research, and the Ontario HIV Treatment Network Research Conference. Finally, a hand search of key journals and conferences was performed, and references of retrieved articles were reviewed for additional citations. Subsequently, abstracts were categorized according to their primary topic (based on an outline of the guidelines) into table format with the following headings: author, title, study purpose, participants, results and general comments. Finally, experts in the field were consulted for their opinions as to whether any articles were missed. VALUES: The quality of evidence was rated using the criteria described in the Report of the Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care. Recommendations for practice were ranked according to the method described in that report (Table) and through use of the Appraisal of Guidelines Research and Evaluation instrument for the development of clinical guidelines. SPONSORS: The Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists of Canada, Women and HIV Research Program, Women's College Research Institute, Women's College Hospital, University of Toronto, Abbott Laboratories Canada, the Ontario HIV Treatment Network, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, and the Canadian HIV Trials Network.

Papiloma bucal en pacientes pediátricos: potencial transmisión materna / Oral papilloma in pediatric patients: potential maternal transmission

La evidencia actual afirma que el virus del papiloma humano (VPH) se puede transmitir tanto por vía sexual como por otras vías. Cuando el método de contagio es no sexual la madre parece ser el principal transmisor del VPH al recién nacido. Diversos autores en sus estudios reportan que se detectó ADN del VPH en el líquido amniótico, cordón umbilical, placenta y membranas fetales, lo que sugiere que la madre puede infectar al infante en la etapa de gestación o durante el parto. Después de la transmisión de la madre al recién nacido, las manifestaciones clínicas pueden aparecer en cualquier etapa de la vida, afectando mucosas, piel o ambas. Cuando se presenta papiloma bucal en niños se piensa en contacto directo, autoinoculación, abuso o violencia sexual, ya que éstos son algunos de los modos de transmisión de la enfermedad, pero cuando no se presenta ninguno de estos métodos de transmisión se deben indagar los antecedentes familiares, específicamente si la madre presentó infección del virus durante su embarazo. Se presentan dos casos de pacientes pediátricos con impresión diagnóstica de papiloma bucal sin causa evidente. Se confirmó el diagnóstico histopatológico y se estableció la relación de transmisión del virus de la madre al niño, ya que en los antecedentes familiares sus madres reportaron infección cervical por VPH en el embarazo y en los antecedentes personales no se encontraron resultados positivos para relacionarlo con otro tipo de transmisión (AU)

Current evidence indicates that human papillomavirus (HPV) can be transmitted both sexually and nonsexually. When the route of contagion is nonsexual, the mother appears to be the main transmitter of HPV to the newborn. Several authors report detection of HPV DNA in amniotic fluid, umbilical cord, placenta and fetal membranes, suggesting that the mother can infect the infant during pregnancy or childbirth. After transmission of virus from mother to newborn, clinical manifestations may appear at any stage in life, affecting mucous membranes, skin or both. When children present with oral papilloma, possible etiologies are direct contact, self-innoculation, sexual abuse or violence. However, when none of these causes are evident, family history should be investigated, especially if the mother manifested HPV infection during pregnancy. We present two cases of pediatric patients with clinical impression of oral papilloma without obvious cause. Histopathology confirmed the diagnosis of HPV and route of transmission was established as mother-to-child, since mothers reported cervical HPV infection during pregnancy. Furthermore, the childrens' medical histories did not indicate any other route of contagion for the virus (AU)

Vertical HIV transmission should be excluded from criminal prosecution.

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) is an important part of global and national responses to HIV and AIDS. In recent years, many countries have adopted laws to criminalise HIV transmission and exposure. Many of these laws are broadly written and have provisions that enable criminal prosecution of vertical transmission in some circumstances. Even if prosecutions have not yet materialised, the use of these laws against HIV-positive pregnant women could compound the stigma already faced by them and have a chilling effect on women's utilisation of prevention of mother-to-child transmission programmes. Although criminal laws targeting HIV transmission have often been proposed and adopted with the intent of protecting women, such laws may disadvantage women instead. Criminal laws on HIV transmission and exposure should be reviewed and revised to ensure that vertical transmission is explicitly excluded as an object of criminal prosecution. Scaling up PMTCT services and ensuring that they are affordable, accessible, welcoming and of good quality is the most effective strategy for reducing vertical transmission of HIV and should be the primary strategy in all countries.

[Prevention of viral hepatitis B and C infections--jurisdiction and certification difficulties]. / Profilaktyka zakazen HBV i HCV a trudnosci orzecznicze.

The number of the cases for payment because of viral hepatitis B and C inflammation is significant. Because of the greater patients' notice of the disease and portal of infection, lawyer's opinion accessibility and poor economical situation of society the claims for damages seems to be more popular. The lawyers specialize in medical law. This is the reason to pay more attention to prevention of infections. Besides the hospital infections there is problem of viral hepatitis B and C infection as the occupational disease with all health and juridical consequences. These problems concern specially operative specialties therefore gynecology and obstetrics among the others. The aim of our study was to analyze jurisdiction and certification difficulties in context of occupational disease and cases for payment because of viral hepatitis B and C infections. We also try to answer the question what are possibilities to prevent infections and to defence in law suits.