Astronaut Michael Collins, Apollo 8, and the anterior cervical fusion that changed the history of human spaceflight.

In 1961, President John F. Kennedy declared that the United States would send a man to the moon and safely bring him home before the end of the decade. Astronaut Michael Collins was one of those men. He flew to the moon on the historic flight of Apollo 11 while Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked on its surface. However, this was not supposed to be the case.Astronaut Collins was scheduled to fly on Apollo 8. While training, in 1968, he started developing symptoms of cervical myelopathy. He underwent evaluation at Wilford Hall Air Force Hospital in San Antonio and was noted to have a C5-6 disc herniation and posterior osteophyte on myelography. Air Force Lieutenant General (Dr.) Paul W. Myers performed an anterior cervical discectomy with placement of iliac bone graft. As a result, Astronaut James Lovell took his place on Apollo 8 flying the uncertain and daring first mission to the moon. This had a cascading effect on the rotation of astronauts, placing Michael Collins on the Apollo 11 flight that first landed men on the moon. It also placed Astronaut James Lovell in a rotation that exposed him to be the Commander of the fateful Apollo 13 flight.Here, the authors chronicle the history of Astronaut Collins' anterior cervical surgery and the impact of his procedure on the rotation of astronaut flight selection, and they review the pivotal historic nature of the Apollo 8 spaceflight. The authors further discuss the ongoing issue of cervical disc herniation among astronauts.

Exploring sex differences in diets and activity patterns through dental and skeletal studies in populations from ancient Corinth, Greece.

Sex and temporal differences are assessed in relation to dietary habits and activity patterns in three ancient populations from Corinth, Greece. The skeletal sample spans time from the Geometric to the Early Byzantine Period (9th c. BCE-5th c. CE). Dental caries and tooth wear have been proven to be reliable dietary indicators. Similarly, spinal osteoarthritis, spinal facet remodeling and Schmorl's nodes, have been used to infer activity patterns.

Ulf Fernström (1915-1985) and his Contributions to the Development of Artificial Disc Replacements.

INTRODUCTION: Artificial disc replacements, which serve the function of separating vertebrae to allow for proper spinal alignment, can help treat debilitating low back pain in patients who have failed other conservative methods of treatment. A Swedish surgeon, Ulf Fernström, was the pioneer of artificial disc replacement, and his contribution in the form of Fernström balls dramatically altered spinal surgery and technique by showing the proper technique and implant that should be used for areas requiring motion in many planes. HISTORY OF THE ARTIFICIAL DISC: Ulf Fernström created his artificial disc inspired by the movement of the hip and knee joints. His implants attempted to restore disc spacing and articulation in patients who had failed conservative measures of treatment. Fernström balls were the first implants of their kind and represent the first attempt at artificial disc replacement. However, many surgeons and researchers questioned Fernström balls, claiming that their lack of elastic properties could damage patients. CONCLUSIONS: Of the wide range of implants on the market for the intervertebral disc space, all designs and applications of products stem from the initial discovery made by Fernström, thus making him a pioneer in disc replacement.

Resultados del tratamiento microquirúrgico de la hernia discal lumbar / Results of the microsurgical treatment of lumbar discal hernia

Se realizó un estudio prospectivo de intervención a 168 pacientes con el diagnóstico de hernia discal lumbar. A todos se les practicaron estudios radiológicos simples pre y postoperatorios: Tomografía Axial Computarizada o Resonancia Magnética Nuclear. Se evaluaron elementos del cuadro clínico en el pre y postoperatorios. Se realizó la investigación con el objetivo de describir la aplicación de la técnica microquirúrgica, que permitió la aplicación de la discectomía simple por foraminotomía en la mayoría de los pacientes, con verdadera herniación discal y en el nivel l5-S1(AU)

It was performed a prospective intervention study to 168 patients with the diagnosis of lumbar discal hernia. There were carried out simple pre and post operative radiological studies: Computerized Axial Tomography or Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. There were evaluated some elements of the pre and post operative clinical setting. It was performed the research with the objective to describe the application of the microsurgical technique, what allowed the application of simple discectomy with foraminotomy in most of the patients with real discal hernia in the level 15-SI(AU)

Ischias. Von der Säftelehre zur Pathomorphologie.

Today, lumbar disc disease is a very common disease, which will be often seen in both the family practice as well as in the consultations of orthopedics, neurology, rheumatology or neurosurgery. Furthermore, lumbar disc surgery is one of the most common spinal surgical procedures worldwide. But, for many centuries, physician had no clear understanding of the anatomical condition and the pathomechanism of this disease. Therefore, no rational treatment was available. The Hippocratic physicians knew the signs and symptoms of lumbar disc disease, which they then called "sciatica". But, they subsumed different disorders, like hip diseases under this term. In the mid-18th century, it was the Italian physician Domenico Felice Antonio Cotugno (1736-1822), who first brought clarity in the concept of radicular syndromes; he recognized, that the so-called "sciatica" could be of neurogenic origin. In 1742, a contemporary of Cotugno, the German Josias Weitbrecht (1702-1747) has to be credited for the first precise description of the intervertebral disc. Nearby a hundred years later, the German Hubert von Luschka (1820-1875) described for the first time a herniated disc in a pathologic specimen. With the landmark report of the New England Journal of Medicine in 1934, the two American surgeons, William Jason Mixter (1880-1958) and Joseph Seaton Barr (1901-1963), finally cleared the pathomechanism of lumbar disc disease.

[Sciatica. From stretch rack to microdiscectomy]. / Ischias. Von der Streckbank zur Mikrodiskektomie.

In ancient times as well as in the Middle Ages treatment options for discogenic nerve compression syndrome were limited and usually not very specific because of low anatomical and pathophysiological knowledge. The stretch rack (scamnum Hippocratis) was particularly prominent but was widely used as a therapeutic device for very different spinal disorders. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century anatomical knowledge increased and the advances in the fields of asepsis, anesthesia and surgery resulted in an increase in surgical interventions on the spine. In 1908 the first successful lumbar discectomy was initiated and performed by the German neurologist Heinrich O. Oppenheim (1858-1919) and the surgeon Fedor Krause (1857-1937); however, neither recognized the true pathological condition of discogenic nerve compression syndrome. With the landmark report in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1934, the two American surgeons William Jason Mixter (1880-1958) and Joseph Seaton Barr (1901-1963) finally clarified the pathomechanism of lumbar disc herniation and furthermore, propagated discectomy as the standard therapy. Since then interventions on intervertebral discs rapidly increased and the treatment options for lumbar disc surgery quickly evolved. The surgical procedures changed over time and were continuously being refined. In the late 1960s the surgical microscope was introduced for spinal surgery by the work of the famous neurosurgeon Mahmut Gazi Yasargil and his colleague Wolfhard Caspar and so-called microdiscectomy was introduced. Besides open discectomy other interventional techniques were developed to overcome the side effects of surgical procedures. In 1964 the American orthopedic surgeon Lyman Smith (1912-1991) introduced chemonucleolysis, a minimally invasive technique consisting only of a cannula and the proteolytic enzyme chymopapain, which is injected into the disc compartment to dissolve the displaced disc material. In 1975 the Japanese orthopedic surgeon Sadahisa Hijikata described percutaneous discectomy for the first time, which was a further minimally invasive surgical technique. Further variants of minimally invasive surgical procedures, such as percutaneous laser discectomy in 1986 and percutaneous endoscopic microdiscectomy in 1997, were also introduced; however, open discectomy, especially microdiscectomy remains the therapeutic gold standard for lumbar disc herniation.

Does the correlation between Schmorl's nodes and vertebral morphology extend into the lumbar spine?

Schmorl's nodes are depressions on vertebrae due to herniation of the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral disc into the vertebral body. This study provides an extension of our previous study which analyzed the shape of the lower thoracic spine and found that vertebral morphology was associated with the presence of Schmorl's nodes. Ninety adult individuals from the late Medieval site of Fishergate House, York, and the Post-Medieval site of Coach Lane, North Shields, Tyne and Wear, England, were analysed using 2D geometric morphometrics to identify possible relationships between vertebral morphology and Schmorl's nodes at the thoraco-lumbar junction and in the lumbar spine. A significant correlation was found between vertebral shape and the presence of Schmorl's nodes in the twelfth thoracic vertebrae and the first to third lumbar vertebrae. The findings corroborate previous studies and suggest that vertebral shape may be an important factor in spinal health. It is hypothesized that the pedicle shape of affected vertebrae may not provide adequate structural support for the vertebral bodies, resulting in vertical disc herniation.

A history of lumbar disc herniation from Hippocrates to the 1990s.

In ancient times, a supernatural understanding of the syndrome of lumbar radiculopathy often involved demonic forces vexing the individual with often crippling pain. The ancient Greeks and Egyptians began to take a more naturalistic view and, critically, suspected a relationship between lumbar spinal pathology and leg symptoms. Relatively little then changed for those with sciatica until the classic works by Cotugno and Kocher arrived in the late 18th century. Early lumbar canal explorations were performed in the late 1800s and early 1900s by MacEwen, Horsley, Krause, Taylor, Dandy, and Cushing, among others. In these cases, when compressive pathologies were found and removed, the lesions typically were (mis-)identified as enchondromas or osteochondritis dissecans. To better understand the history, learn more about the first treatments of lumbar disc herniation, and evaluate the impact of the early influences on modern spine practice, searches of PubMed and Embase were performed using the search terms discectomy, medical history, lumbar spine surgery, herniated disc, herniated nucleus pulposus, sciatica, and lumbar radiculopathy. Additional sources were identified from the reference lists of the reviewed papers. Many older and ancient sources including De Ischiade Nervosa are available in English translations and were used. When full texts were not available, English abstracts were used. The first true, intentional discectomy surgery was performed by Mixter and Barr in 1932. Early on, a transdural approach was favored. In 1938, Love described the intralaminar, extradural approach. His technique, although modified with improved lighting, magnification, and retractors, remains a staple approach to disc herniations today. Other modalities such as chymopapain have been investigated. Some remain a part of the therapeutic armamentarium, whereas others have disappeared. By the 1970s, CT scanning after myelography markedly improved the clinical evaluation of patients with lumbar disc herniation. In this era, use of discectomy surgery increased rapidly. Even patients with very early symptoms were offered surgery. Later work, especially by Weber and Hakelius, showed that many patients with lumbar disc herniation would improve without surgical intervention. In the ensuing decades, the debate over operative indications and timing continued, reaching another pivotal moment with the 2006 publication of the initial results of Spine Patient Outcomes Research Trial.

Little-known Swiss contributions to the description, diagnosis, and surgery of lumbar disc disease before the Mixter and Barr era.

The understanding of lumbar spine pathologies made substantial progress at the turn of the twentieth century. The authors review the original publication of Otto Veraguth in 1929 reporting on the successful resection of a herniated lumbar disc, published exclusively in the German language. His early report is put into the historical context, and its impact on the understanding of pathologies of the intervertebral disc (IVD) is estimated. The Swiss surgeon and Nobel Prize laureate Emil Theodor Kocher was among the first physicians to describe the traumatic rupture of the IVD in 1896. As early as 1909 Oppenheim and Krause published 2 case reports on surgery for a herniated lumbar disc. Goldthwait was the first physician to delineate the etiopathogenes is between annulus rupture, symptoms of sciatica, and neurological signs in his publication of 1911. Further publications by Middleton and Teacher in 1911 and Schmorl in 1929 added to the understanding of lumbar spinal pathologies. In 1929, the Swiss neurologist Veraguth (surgery performed by Hans Brun) and the American neurosurgeon Walter Edward Dandy both published their early experiences with the surgical therapy of a herniated lumbar disc. Veraguth's contribution, however, has not been appreciated internationally to date. The causal relationship between lumbar disc pathology and sciatica remained uncertain for some years to come. The causal relationship was not confirmed until Mixter and Barr's landmark paper in 1934 describing the association of sciatica and lumbar disc herniation, after which the surgical treatment became increasingly popular. Veraguth was among the first physicians to report on the clinical course of a patient with successful resection of a herniated lumbar disc. His observations should be acknowledged in view of the limited experience and literature on this ailment at that time.

Vertebral morphology influences the development of Schmorl's nodes in the lower thoracic vertebrae.

Schmorl's nodes are the result of herniations of the nucleus pulposus into the adjacent vertebral body and are commonly identified in both clinical and archaeological contexts. The current study aims to identify aspects of vertebral shape that correlate with Schmorl's nodes. Two-dimensional statistical shape analysis was performed on digital images of the lower thoracic spine (T10-T12) of adult skeletons from the late medieval skeletal assemblages from Fishergate House, York, St. Mary Graces and East Smithfield Black Death cemeteries, London, and postmedieval Chelsea Old Church, London. Schmorl's nodes were scored on the basis of their location, depth, and size. Results indicate that there is a correlation between the shape of the posterior margin of the vertebral body and pedicles and the presence of Schmorl's nodes in the lower thoracic spine. The size of the vertebral body in males was also found to correlate with the lesions. Vertebral shape differences associated with the macroscopic characteristics of Schmorl's nodes, indicating severity of the lesion, were also analyzed. The shape of the pedicles and the posterior margin of the vertebral body, along with a larger vertebral body size in males, have a strong association with both the presence and severity of Schmorl's nodes. This suggests that shape and/or size of these vertebral components are predisposing to, or resulting in, vertically directed disc herniation.

Operative management of lumbar disc herniation : the evolution of knowledge and surgical techniques in the last century.

Removal of a herniated disc with the use of the operative microscope was first performed by Yasargil (Adv Neurosurg. 4:81-2, 1977) in 1977. However, it began to be used more and more only in the late 1980s (McCulloch JA (1989) Principles of microsurgery for lumbar disc disease. Raven Press, New York). In the 1990s, many spinal surgeons abandoned conventional discectomy with naked-eye to pass to the routine practice of microdiscectomy. The merits of this technique are that it allows every type of disc herniation to be excised through a short approach to skin, fascia and muscles as well as a limited laminoarthrectomy. For these reasons, it has been, and still is, considered the "gold standard" of surgical treatment for lumbar disc herniation, and the method used by the vast majority of spinal surgeons. In the 1990s, the advent of MRI and the progressive increase in definition of this modality of imaging, as well as histopathologic and immunochemical studies of disc tissue and the analysis of the results of conservative treatments have considerably contributed to the knowledge of the natural evolution of a herniated disc. It was shown that disc herniation may decrease in size or disappear in a few weeks or months. Since the second half of the 1990s there has been a revival of percutaneous procedures. Some of these are similar to the percutaneous automated nucleotomy; other methods are represented by intradiscal injection of a mixture of "oxygen-ozone" (Alexandre A, Buric J, Paradiso R. et al. (2001) Intradiscal injection of oxygen ozone for the treatment of lumbar disc herniations: result at 5 years. 12th World Congress of Neurosurgery; 284-7), or laserdiscectomy performed under CT scan (Menchetti PPM. (2006) Laser Med Sci. 4:25-7). The really emerging procedure is that using an endoscope inserted into the disc through the intervertebral foramen to visualize the herniation and remove it manually using thin pituitary rongeurs, a radiofrequency probe or both (Chiu JC. (2004) Surg Technol Int. 13:276-86).Microdiscectomy is still the standard method of treatment due to its simplicity, low rate of complications and high percentage of satisfactory results, which exceed 90% in the largest series. Endoscopic transforaminal discectomy appears to be a reliable method, able to give similar results to microdiscectomy, provided the surgeon is expert enough in the technique, which implies a long learning curve in order to perform the operation effectively, with no complications. All the non-endoscopic percutaneous procedures now available can be used, but the patient must be clearly informed that while the procedure is simple and rapid, at least for the disc L4-L5 and those above (except for laserdiscectomy under CT, that can be easily performed also at L5-S1), their success rate ranges from 60 to 70% and that, in many cases, pain may decrease slowly and may take even several weeks to disappear.

The history of neurosurgery in Memphis: the Semmes-Murphey Clinic and the Department of Neurosurgery at the University of Tennessee College of Medicine.

Neurological surgery was defined as a separate surgical specialty by Harvey Cushing and a few other surgeons, most of whom were trained and influenced by Cushing. One of these, Raphael Eustace Semmes, became the first neurosurgeon in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1912. After World War II, Semmes and his first associate, Francis Murphey, incorporated the Semmes-Murphey Clinic, which has been primarily responsible for the growth of the Department of Neurosurgery at the University of Tennessee Health Science Center in Memphis, as well as the development of select neurosurgical subspecialties in Memphis area hospitals.

Dandy'S disc.

Much has been written about the accomplishments of Walter E. Dandy, and he remains one of the seminal figures in neurosurgery. He is perhaps best known for his scientific contributions to our understanding of cerebrospinal fluid and pituitary gland physiology and his clinical contributions of ventriculography, cerebellopontine angle approaches for a variety of posterior fossa pathology, and the first clipping of a cerebral aneurysm. What is not as well known is that Dandy was the first to accurately describe and treat lumbar disc herniation. He published a thorough clinical, operative, and pathological description in a 1929 Archives of Surgery article, titled "Loose Cartilage from Intervertebral Disk Simulating Tumor of the Spinal Cord." His publication predates by 5 years the well-known 1934 Mixter and Barr article "Rupture of the Intervertebral Disc with Involvement of the Spinal Canal."

The history of spinal surgery for disc disease: an illustrated timeline.

This article presents the evolution in medical history which leads to the surgical treatment for ruptured discs. Only at the last century the precise diagnosis of a ruptured lumbar disc could be made after tremendous efforts of the many medical pioneers in the study of the spine. The experience gained with the lumbar spine was rapidly transferred to the cervical spine. We describe the evolution of the clinical and surgical aspects about ruptured discs in the lumbar and cervical spine. An illustrative timeline of the major events regarding the surgical treatment for ruptured disks is outlined in a straight forward manner. Our understandings of the relation between symptoms and signs and of that between anatomy and pathophysiology have led to more successful surgical treatment for this disease. Nowadays lumbar and cervical discectomies are the most frequent operations carried out by neurosurgeons. Our current care of patients with this kind of spinal disorders is based on the work of our ancient medical heroes.

The history of spinal surgery for disc disease: an illustrated timeline

Esse artigo apresenta a evolução da história médica que nos conduziu ao tratamento cirúrgico da doença discal. Somente no século passado o diagnóstico preciso de ruptura de disco lombar pode ser feito, após os esforços de vários pioneiros no estudo da coluna vertebral. A experiencia obtida no estudo da coluna lombar foi rapidamente transferida para coluna cervical. Uma revisão ilustrada dos principais eventos relacionados ao tratamento cirúrgico do disco roto na coluna lombar e cervical é apresentada de forma objetiva. Nosso conhecimento sobre a relação entre os sinais e sintomas, da anatomia e fisiopatologia levaram ao tratamento cirúrgico mais eficaz das lesões discais. O tratamento atual dessas anormalidades da coluna vertebral é fruto do trabalho de verdadeiros médicos e heróis.

The "tract" of history in the treatment of lumbar degenerative disc disease.

In this paper past, present, and future treatments of degenerative disc disease (DDD) of the lumbar spine are outlined in a straight forward manner. This is done to review previous knowledge of the disease, define current treatment procedures, and discuss future perspectives. An analysis of a subject of this magnitude dictates that one describes as accurate a history as possible: an anatomical/historical "tract" with emphasis on all possible deviations. Although spinal disorders have been recognized for a long time, the view of DDD as a particular disease entity is a more recent development. In this paper, the authors attempt to outline the history of DDD of the lumbar spine in an unbiased and scientific fashion. Physiological, diagnostic, and therapeutic implications will all be addressed in this study.

[Degenerative changes of the cervical facet joints in the medial and lateral atlantoaxial joint - a paleopathological study]. / Degenerative Veränderungen der zervikalen Facettengelenke sowie der medialen und lateralen atlantoaxialen Gelenke - eine paläopathologische Studie.

AIM: This article describes the prevalence of degenerative changes of the upper cervical spine (C1-C2) and cervical facet joints found during investigations of spinal column remains. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study was conducted on a sample of 196 cervical spines from southwestern Germany which derive from the 6th to 8th centuries AD. The degenerative lesions were classified into grades 1 (marginal osteophytes), 2 (uneven joint surfaces), or 3 (osseous ankylosis). RESULTS: Of the skeletons examined, 19.4 % (n = 38) showed degenerative changes of the cervical facet joints and/or upper cervical spine (mean age at death was 44 years). The medial (6.1 %) and lateral (0.6 %) atlanto-axial joints were rarely involved in degenerative changes. The facet joints from C3-C4 to C6-C7 showed degenerative changes in 8.0-11.7 % of cases (usually grade 1 and 2). The C2-C3 facet joints were significantly involved in degenerative changes in 19.7 % of cases, one fourth of which were osseous ankylosis (grade 3). CONCLUSION: The C2-C3 facet joints showed a high rate of degenerative changes.

Looking back on back pain: trial and error of diagnoses in the 20th century.

CONTEXT: The societal costs of low back pain and associated disability are immense. However, very little is known about the etiology of low back pain. Lumbar disc disease was discovered in the last century and became the predominant etiology for back pain. Today we know that for the majority of low back pain cases, a specific etiology cannot be determined. OBJECTIVE: To analyze the evolution of the "disc paradigm" and to compare our contemporary understanding to the scientific discussion in the beginning of the last century. DESIGN: Survey of the highest ranked German medical journal from 1900 to 1999. DATA EXTRACTION: The indexes of 5185 journal issues of the Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift were reviewed for articles about low back pain. DATA SYNTHESIS: For each article, the etiologies were identified, categorized, and counted per decade. In addition, each important etiology was described. CONCLUSIONS: In the beginning of the last century, many heterogeneous etiologies coexisted. In the second half of the century, the theory of disc degeneration took over almost the entire literature about low back pain. Pre-existing theories disappeared, but re-entered the discussion in the last decade. Two factors seemed to influence this development: 1) a tendency to prefer organic, visible abnormalities as etiologies; and 2) an inclination to trust technical diagnostic results more than clinical judgment.

History of surgery for ruptured disk.

The history of surgery for ruptured disk of the human spine began approximately a century ago. Advances in the understanding of symptoms and signs of root or cord compression, their relationship to the pathology, and the refinement in imaging techniques have contributed to the present surgical management of rupture disk disease. Historical findings relevant to the cervical, thoracic, and lumbosacral regions of the spine, with relevant pathophysiology, imaging, and surgical treatment, including the evolution of various surgical approaches are discussed. Surgeons and other contributors in the medical field are cited for their respective contributions to the evolution of the present operative approaches for disk ruptures in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spinal regions.