The effects of artocarpin on wound healing: in vitro and in vivo studies.

The skin protects the body against harmful substances and microorganisms. When the skin is damaged, wound healing must be finely regulated to restore the normal function of skin tissue. Artocarpin (ARTO), a prenylated flavonoid purified from the plant Artocarpus communis, has been reported to have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the wound healing potential and therapeutic mechanism of ARTO. Immunohistochemical staining of neutrophils and macrophages and mouse cytokine array analysis demonstrated that ARTO accelerates inflammatory progression and subsequently decreases persistent inflammation. ARTO increases collagen production and increases human fibroblast proliferation and migration by activating the P38 and JNK pathways. Moreover, ARTO increases the proliferation and migration of human keratinocytes through the ERK and P38 pathways and augments human endothelial cell proliferation and tube formation through the Akt and P38 pathways. Together, our data suggested that ARTO enhances skin wound healing, possibly by accelerating the inflammatory phase and by increasing myofibroblast differentiation, proliferation and migration of fibroblasts and keratinocytes, collagen synthesis and maturation, re-epithelialization, and angiogenesis. These findings indicate that ARTO has potential as a potent therapeutic agent for the treatment of skin wounds.

Chemoprevention of Colorectal Cancer by Artocarpin, a Dietary Phytochemical from Artocarpus heterophyllus.

Artocarpus heterophyllus is an evergreen tree distributed in tropical regions, and its fruit (jackfruit) is well-known as the world's largest tree-borne fruit. Although A. heterophyllus has been widely used in folk medicines against inflammation, its potential in cancer chemoprevention remains unclear. Herein we identified artocarpin from A. heterophyllus as a promising colorectal cancer chemopreventive agent by targeting Akt kinase. Phenotypically, artocarpin exhibited selective cytotoxicity against human colon cancer cells. Artocarpin impaired the anchorage-independent growth capability, suppressed colon cancer cell growth, and induced a G1 phase cell cycle arrest which was followed by apoptotic as well as autophagic cell death. Mechanistic studies revealed that artocarpin directly targeted Akt 1 and 2 kinase activity evidenced by in vitro kinase assay, ex vivo binding assay as well as Akt downstream cellular signal transduction. Importantly, oral administration of artocarpin attenuated colitis-associated colorectal tumorigenesis in mice. Taken together, artocarpin, a bioactive component of A. heterophyllus, might merit investigation as a potential colorectal cancer chemopreventive agent.

High-Mannose Specific Lectin and Its Recombinants from a Carrageenophyta Kappaphycus alvarezii Represent a Potent Anti-HIV Activity Through High-Affinity Binding to the Viral Envelope Glycoprotein gp120.

We previously reported that a high-mannose binding lectin KAA-2 from the red alga Kappaphycus alvarezii, which is an economically important species and widely cultivated as a source of carrageenans, had a potent anti-influenza virus activity. In this study, the full-length sequences of two KAA isoforms, KAA-1 and KAA-2, were elucidated by a combination of peptide mapping and complementary DNA (cDNA) cloning. They consisted of four internal tandem-repeated domains, which are conserved in high-mannose specific lectins from lower organisms, including a cyanobacterium Oscillatoria agardhii and a red alga Eucheuma serra. Using an Escherichia coli expression system, an active recombinant form of KAA-1 (His-tagged rKAA-1) was successfully generated in the yield of 115 mg per liter of culture. In a detailed oligosaccharide binding analysis by a centrifugal ultrafiltration-HPLC method with 27 pyridylaminated oligosaccharides, His-tagged rKAA-1 and rKAA-1 specifically bound to high-mannose N-glycans with an exposed α1-3 mannose in the D2 arm as the native lectin did. Predicted from oligosaccharide binding specificity, a surface plasmon resonance analysis revealed that the recombinants exhibit strong interaction with gp120, a heavily glycosylated envelope glycoprotein of HIV with high association constants (1.48 - 1.61 × 10(9) M(-1)). Native KAAs and the recombinants inhibited the HIV-1 entry at IC50s of low nanomolar levels (7.3-12.9 nM). Thus, the recombinant proteins would be useful as antiviral reagents targeting the viral surface glycoproteins with high-mannose N-glycans, and the cultivated alga K. alvarezii could also be a good source of not only carrageenans but also this functional lectin(s).

Synergistic effect of artocarpin on antibacterial activity of some antibiotics against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli.

CONTEXT: Antibacterial resistance has dramatically increased and resulted in serious health problems worldwide. One appealing strategy to overcome this resistance problem is the use of combinations of antibacterial compounds to increase their potency. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to determine the synergistic effects of artocarpin for ampicillin, norfloxacin, and tetracycline against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) as well as the Gram-negative bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A broth microdilution method (1.95-250 µg/mL) was used to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of artocarpin and the antibiotics. Any synergistic effects were evaluated at their own MIC using the checkerboard method and a time-kill assay at 37 °C for 24 h. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Artocarpin showed antibacterial activity against MRSA and E. coli with an MIC value of 62.5 µg/mL, and against P. aeruginosa with an MIC value of 250 µg/mL. The interaction of artocarpin with all tested antibiotics produced synergistic effects against MRSA with a fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) of 0.15-0.37. In addition, a combination of artocarpin and norfloxacin showed a synergistic effect against E. coli with an FICI value of 0.37, while the combinations of artocarpin and tetracycline as well as artocarpin and norfloxacin exhibited synergy interactions against P. aeruginosa with FICI values of 0.24 and 0.37, respectively. Time-kill assays indicated that artocarpin enhanced the antimicrobial activities of tetracycline, ampicillin, and norfloxacin against MRSA as well as Gram-negative bacteria.

Intradermal injection of an anti-Langerin-HIVGag fusion vaccine targets epidermal Langerhans cells in nonhuman primates and can be tracked in vivo.

The development of new immunization strategies requires a better understanding of early molecular and cellular events occurring at the site of injection. The skin is particularly rich in immune cells and represents an attractive site for vaccine administration. Here, we specifically targeted vaccine antigens to epidermal Langerhans cells (LCs) using a fusion protein composed of HIV antigens and a monoclonal antibody targeting Langerin. We developed a fluorescence imaging approach to visualize, in vivo, the vaccine-targeted cells. Studies were performed in nonhuman primates (NHPs) because of their relevance as a model to assess human vaccines. We directly demonstrated that in NHPs, intradermally injected anti-Langerin-HIVGag specifically targets epidermal LCs and induces rapid changes in the LC network, including LC activation and migration out of the epidermis. Vaccine targeting of LCs significantly improved anti-HIV immune response without requirement of an adjuvant. Although the co-injection of the TLR-7/8 synthetic ligand, R-848 (resiquimod), with the vaccine, did not enhance significantly the antibody response, it stimulated recruitment of HLA-DR+ inflammatory cells to the site of immunization. This study allowed us to characterize the dynamics of early local events following the injection of a vaccine-targeted epidermal LCs and R-848.

Depigmenting action of a nanoemulsion containing heartwood extract of Artocarpus incisus on UVB-induced hyperpigmentation in C57BL/6 mice.

Melasma hyperpigmentation is an acquired disorder predominantly affecting the female population. The present study was conducted to determine the potential of a botanical extract to reduce observable hyperpigmentation. The extract from heartwood of Artocarpus incisus was formulated into nanoemulsions, and the depigmenting efficacy of the formulated nanoemulsion was determined in vivo. HPLC analysis showed that the extract contained artocarpin in an amount of 44.5 ± 0.1% w/w. The extract exhibited melanogenesis inhibition with an IC(50) value of 30.2 ± 2.4 mg/ml, while kojic acid, a well known lightening agent, exhibited an IC(50) of 51.4 ± 5.1 mg/ml. The nanoemulsion containing the extract was then formulated and prepared by the phase inversion technique. The concentration of the extract used was about six times its IC(50). The optimal formula containing 0.02% w/w extract, 41.6% w/w isopropyl myristate, 0.03% w/w α-tocopherol, 5% w/wglyc-eryl monostearate (co-emulsifier), 8% w/w ceteareth-10 (emulsifier), 0.05% triethanolamine, 0.03% w/w carbopol 940, and water adjusted to 100% w/w provided a homogeneous o/w emulsion with a droplet size of 325 ± 15 nm and a polydispersity of 0.31 ± 0.02. The depigmenting efficacy was then observed following topical application of the formulated nanoemulsion to UVB-stimulated hyperpigmented dorsal skin of C57BL/6 mice. A strongly visible decrease in hyperpigmentation was observed after six weeks of treatment with the formulated nanoemulsion. The degree of pigmentation decreased after the application was 84 ± 4 units, while that after the application of the extracted prepared into solution was 51 ± 3 units. The applied areas would return to their original color after treatment was stopped for four weeks.

Dendritic cells in distinct oral mucosal tissues engage different mechanisms to prime CD8+ T cells.

Although oral dendritic cells (DCs) were shown to induce cell-mediated immunity, the identity and function of the various oral DC subsets involved in this process is unclear. In this study, we examined the mechanisms used by DCs of the buccal mucosa and of the lining mucosa to elicit immunity. After plasmid DNA immunization, buccally immunized mice generated robust local and systemic CD8(+) T cell responses, whereas lower responses were seen by lining immunization. A delayed Ag presentation was monitored in vivo in both groups; yet, a more efficient presentation was mediated by buccal-derived DCs. Restricting transgene expression to CD11c(+) cells resulted in diminished CD8(+) T cell responses in both oral tissues, suggesting that immune induction is mediated mainly by cross-presentation. We then identified, in addition to the previously characterized Langerhans cells (LCs) and interstitial dendritic cells (iDCs), a third DC subset expressing the CD103(+) molecule, which represents an uncharacterized subset of oral iDCs expressing the langerin receptor (Ln(+)iDCs). Using Langerin-DTR mice, we demonstrated that whereas LCs and Ln(+)iDCs were dispensable for T cell induction in lining-immunized mice, LCs were essential for optimal CD8(+) T cell priming in the buccal mucosa. Buccal LCs, however, failed to directly present Ag to CD8(+) T cells, an activity that was mediated by buccal iDCs and Ln(+)iDCs. Taken together, our findings suggest that the mechanisms engaged by oral DCs to prime T cells vary between oral mucosal tissues, thus emphasizing the complexity of the oral immune network. Furthermore, we found a novel regulatory role for buccal LCs in potentiating CD8(+) T cell responses.

One-year chronic toxicity study of Aloe arborescens Miller var. natalensis Berger in Wistar Hannover rats. A pilot study.

This study was conducted to evaluate the chronic toxicity of Aloe arborescens Miller var. natalensis Berger (ALOE) in the diet at doses of 4.0%, 0.8% or 0.16% to groups of male and female Wistar Hannover rats. No deaths occurred at any dose level throughout the treatment period. Both sexes receiving 4.0% showed diarrhea, with a reduced body weight gain. Increase of WBCs in the male 4.0% group, decrease of Hb in the female 4.0% and 0.8% groups, decrease of IP in the male 4.0% and 0.8% groups and female 4.0% group, and decrease of Ca and ALT in the female 4.0% group were observed. Relative kidney weight showed increase in the female 4.0% group and relative heart and brain weights were decreased in the female 4.0% and 0.8% groups. Histopathologically, both sexes receiving 4.0% showed severe sinus dilatation of ileocecal lymph nodes, and yellowish pigmentation of ileocecal lymph nodes and renal tubules. In conclusion, the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) for ALOE was the 0.16% in diet, which is equivalent to 87.7 and 109.7 mg/kg/day in males and females, respectively.

Targeted transfollicular delivery of artocarpin extract from Artocarpus incisus by means of microparticles.

Artocarpin (Ar), an extract of heartwood of Artocarpus incisus, possesses potent 5alpha reductase inhibitory effect. The penetration of Ar into the deeper layers of the skin where androgen receptors are present is limited. Therefore, this study was aimed to prepare alginate/chitosan (ACS) microparticles for targeted transfollicular delivery. It was found that a suitable particle size ranging from 2 to 6 microm can be prepared using the ionotropic gelation technique. Entrapment efficiency of Ar in ACS microparticles was 18.7+/-1.7%. The release of Ar from the ACS microparticles over 6 h was 0.7% of the loading dose suitable for a long-term release of Ar in the follicular ducts. The optimal growth suppression of the hamster flank organs could be achieved by topical application of Ar-ACS microparticles with a content of 0.1 mg in 5 mg microparticles to one hamster flank while the other flank (intraspecies control) showed the normal growth of the flank organs and Ar at the same concentration in solution form could not suppress the growth of the flank organs to the same extent. The efficiency of Ar 0.1 mg loaded in ACS microparticles was shown to be comparable to a dose of 1 mg Ar applied as solution. However, Ar formulated in microparticles did not show significant systemic action compared to the dermal application of an Ar solution and a flutamide preparation (1 mg) as positive control.

A fusion protein containing a lepidopteran-specific toxin from the South Indian red scorpion (Mesobuthus tamulus) and snowdrop lectin shows oral toxicity to target insects.

BACKGROUND: Despite evidence suggesting a role in plant defence, the use of plant lectins in crop protection has been hindered by their low and species-specific insecticidal activity. Snowdrop lectin (Galanthus nivalis agglutinin; GNA) is transported to the haemolymph of insects after oral ingestion, and can be used as a basis for novel insecticides. Recombinant proteins containing GNA expressed as a fusion with a peptide or protein, normally only toxic when injected into the insect haemolymph, have the potential to show oral toxicity as a result of GNA-mediated uptake. RESULTS: A gene encoding a toxin, ButaIT, from the red scorpion (Mesobuthus tamulus) was synthesised and assembled into expression constructs. One construct contained ButaIT alone, whereas the other contained ButaIT fused N-terminally to a GNA polypeptide (ButaIT/GNA). Both recombinant proteins were produced using the yeast Pichia pastoris as an expression host, and purified. Recombinant ButaIT and ButaIT/GNA were acutely toxic when injected into larvae of tomato moth (Lacanobia oleracea), causing slow paralysis, leading to mortality or decreased growth. ButaIT/GNA was chronically toxic when fed to L. oleracea larvae, causing decreased survival and weight gain under conditions where GNA alone was effectively non-toxic. Intact ButaIT/GNA was detected in larval haemolymph from insects fed the fusion protein orally, demonstrating transport of the linked polypeptide across the gut. Proteolysis of the fusion protein was also observed. ButaIT/GNA was significantly more toxic that GNA alone when fed to the homopteran Nilaparvata lugens (rice brown planthopper) in liquid artificial diet. CONCLUSION: The ButaIT/GNA recombinant fusion protein is toxic to lepidopteran larvae both when injected and when fed orally, showing the utility of GNA as a carrier to transport potentially toxic peptides and proteins across the insect gut. Although ButaIT has been claimed to be lepidopteran-specific, the fusion protein has more wide-ranging insecticidal activity. Fusion proteins based on plant lectins have potential applications in crop protection, both as exogenously applied treatments and as endogenous products in transgenic plants.

Effects of snowdrop lectin on Mexican rice borer (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) life history parameters.

The effects of the snowdrop lectin, Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA), delivered through an artificial diet, on growth, development, and life history parameters of the Mexican rice borer, Eoreuma loftini (Dyar), were evaluated in the laboratory. Incorporation of GNA at three treatment levels, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0% of total dietary protein, in the larval diet significantly decreased larval survivorship and percentage of adults emerging relative to a control diet lacking GNA, whereas differences were not observed among the three treatment levels. Both larvae and pupae in the control were 8-25% larger than those in the GNA treatments, but differences were not observed between larvae in the GNA treatments. Furthermore, presence of GNA did not affect larval and pupal developmental periods, longevities, and fecundities compared with the control. Mexican rice borer life history parameters, such as net reproductive rate and intrinsic rate of increase, were substantially reduced by the presence of GNA in the diet, but differences were not evident among the three GNA treatment levels.

Anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) activity of lectins from Narcissus species.

Mannose-specific lectins (MSLs) were isolated from bulbs of fifteen wild Narcissus species growing in Spain and assayed for their HIV-1 infection inhibitory activity in MT-4 cells and compared to the Narcissus pseudonarcissus agglutinin (NPA), the commercially available MSL obtained from daffodils. Almost all the tested MSLs were found to be active, showing EC50 values (microg/mL) similar to that of NPA, with some being comparable to those obtained with dextran sulfate without significant cytotoxicity. However, on a molar basis almost all of the MSLs tested exhibited lower EC50 values than dextran sulfate whilst six MSLs had values lower than AZT. The most efficacious anti-HIV-1 activity was exhibited by the Narcissus tortifolious MSL, which was 10- (microg/mL) and 100- (molarity) fold more potent than dextran sulfate. Significantly, although this MSL was 15-fold less potent than AZT in terms of quantity (microg/mL), it was 68-fold more potent on a molar basis. The antiviral indices, a ratio of the concentrations that produce cytotoxicity and HIV-1 replication, were calculated and three of the MSLs, N. confusus, N. leonensis and N. tortifolius reported 1.5-, 2- and 8.5-fold greater AI values than dextran sulfate or AZT. Comparison of MSL haemagglutination activities (HAA) to their anti-HIV-1 activities showed that there was no significant correlation. It was suggested that this may be due to a dissociation between both activities as a consequence of multiple isolectin composition.

Fusion proteins containing neuropeptides as novel insect contol agents: snowdrop lectin delivers fused allatostatin to insect haemolymph following oral ingestion.

The mannose-binding lectin from snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis agglutinin: GNA), when fed to insects, binds to the gut epithelium and passes into the haemolymph. The potential for GNA to act as a carrier protein to deliver an insect neuropeptide, Manduca sexta allatostatin (Manse-AS), to the haemolymph of lepidopteran larvae has been examined by expressing a GNA/Manse-AS fusion protein (FP) in Escherichia coli, and feeding purified FP to larvae of the tomato moth Lacanobia oleracea. FP, administered at 1.5 or 0.5% of dietary proteins, was found to strongly inhibit feeding and prevent growth of fifth stadium larvae, whereas neither GNA nor Manse-AS alone, nor a mixture of GNA and Manse-AS in control treatments, had deleterious effects at similar levels. Elevated levels of material reacting with anti-Manse-AS antibodies were detected in the haemolymph of insects fed diets containing FP, suggesting that transport of the peptide had occurred. Evidence for the delivery of intact FP to the haemolymph was provided by the co-elution of Manse-AS-like immunoreactivity with standard FP after size exclusion chromatography of haemolymph from FP-fed larvae. GNA/Manse-AS and similar fusion proteins offer a novel and effective strategy for delivering insect neuropeptides by oral administration, which could be used in conjunction with expression in transgenic plants to give crop protection in the field.

Efficiency of mannose-binding plant lectins in controlling a homopteran insect, the red cotton bug.

Yield losses of different crops due to the attack of various classes of insects are a worldwide problem. Sucking type homopteran pests causing damage to many crop species are not controlled by commonly known insecticidal proteins, namely, Bacillus thuringiensis delta-endotoxin (Bt). This study describes the purification of mannose-binding lectins from three different monocotyledonous plants (Allium sativum, Colocasia esculenta, and Diffenbachia sequina) and their effects on a homopteran insect, the red cotton bug. All of them had a detrimental effect on the growth and development of the insect, where A. sativum bulb lectin showed the highest mortality of all, in particular. The same bulb lectin not only affected the growth and fecundity of the insect but also imparted drastic changes in the color, weight, and size, even on the second generation of the insects which have been reared on artificial diet supplemented with a sublethal dose of the lectin. Thus, this finding opens up a possibility of using this lectin as an important component in crop management.