Alternative mechanisms for delivery of medication in South Africa: A scoping review.

BACKGROUND: The number of people in South Africa with chronic conditions is a challenge to the health system. In response to the coronavirus infection, health services in Cape Town introduced home delivery of medication by community health workers. In planning for the future, they requested a scoping review of alternative mechanisms for delivery of medication to patients in primary health care in South Africa. METHODS: Databases were systematically searched using a comprehensive search strategy to identify studies from the last 10 years. A methodological guideline for conducting scoping reviews was followed. A standardised template was used to extract data and compare study characteristics and findings. Data was analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. RESULTS: A total of 4253 publications were identified and 26 included. Most publications were from the last 5 years (n = 21), research (n = 24), Western Cape (n = 15) and focused on adherence clubs (n = 17), alternative pick-up-points (n = 14), home delivery (n = 5) and HIV (n = 17). The majority of alternative mechanisms were supported by a centralised dispensing and packaging system. New technology such as smart lockers and automated pharmacy dispensing units have been piloted. Patients benefited from these alternatives and had improved adherence. Available evidence suggests alternative mechanisms were cheaper and more beneficial than attending the facility to collect medication. CONCLUSION: A mix of options tailored to the local context and patient choice that can be adequately managed by the system would be ideal. More economic evaluations are required of the alternatives, particularly before going to scale and for newer technology.

Conass alerta para a falta de medicamentos para sedação

Em audiência pública na Câmara dos Deputados nesta quarta-feira (03), o assessor do Conass, Heber Dobis, participou do debate sobre tabelamento de preços e requisição de medicamentos sedativos e outros, promovido pela Comissão Externa de Ações contra o Coronavírus e ressaltou ser oportuno o momento desta discussão, pois o mesmo tem sido pautado pelo Conass nas últimas semanas. “Levamos este assunto inclusive, para o gabinete de crise do Ministério da Saúde. É um tema que causa extrema preocupação para secretários estaduais de saúde”, disse.

The Impact of Pharmaceutical Policies on Medicine Procurement Pricing in Indonesia Under the Implementation of Indonesia's Social Health Insurance System.

BACKGROUND: Indonesia's social health insurance (Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional, JKN) has been implemented since 2014. To support medicine provision, the government launched policies reform on medicine pricing, procurement and reimbursement; hence, the system might affect medicine prices in the country. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of the pharmaceutical policies reforms on medicine procurement prices. METHODS: This was a pre-post observational study. Medicine price data were collected retrospectively from the 2013 Ministry of Health procurement price list, the 2017 e-catalogue procurement system, and the procurement departments at 2 hospitals in Jakarta and Cilegon (both categorized as region I). The 2013 national procurement price was compared with the 2017 e-catalogue price. The hospitals' procurement prices were collected from the data 3 years before and 3 years under Indonesia's social health insurance JKN (2011-2016), and the data were used to assess the medicine procurement prices in real conditions. The outcome measure was the difference in procurement prices before and under the JKN. RESULTS: The results showed that the procurement prices of 429 (79.6%) of 539 medicines listed in the 2017 e-catalogue decreased, of which 210 items (39.0%) showed over a 50% decrease. Nevertheless, the procurement prices of 104 items (19.3%) increased, especially those that were still under patent or those with a few brands registered in Indonesia. The procurement prices in public and private hospitals showed a similar trend, that is, a significant decrease. Interestingly, non-e-catalogue medicine prices also decreased quite steeply, although the prices of the branded generic category in the private hospital remained unchanged. CONCLUSION: The pharmaceutical policies under the JKN implementation had a profound impact on decreasing medicine procurement prices in Indonesia.

Protocol for a feasibility study of an Indigenous Medication Review Service (IMeRSe) in Australia.

INTRODUCTION: The age-adjusted rate of potentially preventable hospitalisations for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people is almost five times the rate of other Australians. Quality use of medicines has an important role in alleviating these differences. This requires strengthening existing medication reviewing services through collaboration between community pharmacists and health workers, and ensuring services are culturally appropriate. This Indigenous Medication Review Service (IMeRSe) study aims to develop and evaluate the feasibility of a culturally appropriate medication management service delivered by community pharmacists in collaboration with Aboriginal health workers. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This study will be conducted in nine Aboriginal health services (AHSs) and their associated community pharmacies in three Australian states over 12 months. Community pharmacists will be trained to improve their awareness and understanding of Indigenous health and cultural issues, to communicate the quality use of medicines effectively, and to strengthen interprofessional relationships with AHSs and their staff. Sixty consumers (with a chronic condition/pregnant/within 2 years post partum and at risk of medication-related problems (MRPs) per site will be recruited, with data collection at baseline and 6 months. The primary outcome is the difference in cumulative incidence of serious MRPs in the 6 months after IMeRSe introduction compared with the 6 months prior. Secondary outcomes include potentially preventable medication-related hospitalisations, medication adherence, total MRPs, psychological and social empowerment, beliefs about medication, treatment satisfaction and health expenditure. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The protocol received approval from Griffith University (HREC/2018/251), Queensland Health Metro South (HREC/18/QPAH/109), Aboriginal Health and Medical Research Council of New South Wales (1381/18), Far North Queensland (HREC/18/QCH/86-1256) and the Central Australian HREC (CA-18-3090). Dissemination to Indigenous people and communities will be a priority. Results will be available on the Australian Sixth Community Pharmacy Agreement website and published in peer-reviewed journals. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ACTRN12618000188235; Pre-results.

[The health system in Venezuela: a patient without medication?] / Sistema de salud en Venezuela: ¿un paciente sin remedio?

The situation in Venezuela is marked by a profound socioeconomic crisis that raises questions concerning its effects on the health system. The study's aim was to analyze the trends and current situation of the Venezuelan health system, with special emphasis on financing. Based on the World Health Organization's Framework for Action to Strengthen Health Systems, five of the system's six basic components were studied, along with the results in terms of coverage and the population's health. Healthcare financing in Venezuela proved to be primarily private, with a high and growing share of out-of-pocket expenditures, one of the highest in the world. The health sector is also assigned low fiscal priority, with a reduced public budget, vulnerable to fluctuations in oil prices. Meanwhile, health services provision and effective access have been jeopardized in recent years due to the decreased availability of physicians, particularly in some specialties, gaps in provision and medical equipment in health centers, and shortage of medical inputs, medicines, and vaccines, among other factors, affecting the population's health, worsening of several indicators. The economy's structural characteristics and socioeconomic dynamics have impacted the Venezuelan health system, aggravating longstanding problems like the system's fragmentation, segmentation, and "privatization", triggering the emergence of new difficulties like shortage of medicines and lack of accountability, among others.

La coyuntura venezolana está marcada por una profunda crisis socioeconómica que genera interrogantes sobre sus efectos en el sistema de salud. El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar las tendencias y la situación actual del sistema de salud venezolano, con especial énfasis en la financiación. Teniendo por base el marco de acción de la Organización Mundial de la Salud para el fortalecimiento de los sistemas de salud, fueron estudiados cinco de los seis componentes básicos del sistema, así como los resultados en términos de cobertura y salud de la población. El financiamiento de la salud en Venezuela resultó ser primordialmente privado, con un elevado y creciente componente de gasto de bolsillo que se coloca entre los mayores del mundo. Asimismo, el sector salud mostró una baja prioridad fiscal, con un gasto público reducido y vulnerable ante las oscilaciones de los precios del petróleo. Por otro lado, la prestación y el acceso efectivo a los servicios de salud se ha visto comprometido en años recientes, debido -entre otros factores- a la disminución en la disponibilidad de médicos, particularmente para algunas especialidades; fallas en la dotación y equipos médicos de los centros de salud; escasez de insumos médicos, medicamentos y vacunas, afectando la salud de la población que registra algunos retrocesos. Las características estructurales de la economía y la dinámica coyuntural socioeconómica han impactado en el sistema de salud venezolano, profundizando problemas de vieja data como la fragmentación, segmentación y "privatización" del sistema y provocando el surgimiento de nuevas dificultades como escasez de medicamentos, opacidad en la información, entre otros.

A conjuntura venezuelana está caracterizada por uma profunda crise socioeconômica que gera interrogantes sobre os seus efeitos no sistema de saúde. O objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar as tendências e a situação atual do sistema de saúde venezuelano, com especial ênfase no financiamento. Tendo por base o marco de ação da Organização Mundial da Saúde para o fortalecimento dos sistemas de saúde, foram estudados cinco dos seis componentes básicos do sistema, assim como os resultados em termos de cobertura e saúde da população. O financiamento da saúde na Venezuela acabou por ser, sobretudo, privado, com um elevado e crescente componente de despesas diretas que fica entre os maiores do mundo. Além disso, o setor da saúde revelou uma baixa prioridade fiscal, com despesas públicas reduzidas e vulneráveis perante as oscilações dos preços do petróleo. Por outro lado, a prestação e o acesso efetivo aos serviços de saúde foram comprometidos nos anos recentes, devido -entre outros fatores- à redução na disponibilização de médicos, particularmente para algumas especialidades; falhas na dotação e equipes médicas dos centros de saúde; carência de material médico, remédios e vacinas, afetando a saúde da população que registra alguns retrocessos. As características estruturais da economia e a dinâmica conjuntural socioeconómica tem atingido o sistema de saúde venezuelano, aprofundando problemas de longa data como a fragmentação, segmentação e "privatização" do sistema, gerando o surgimento de novas dificuldades como a carência de medicamentos, ausência de transparência na informação, entre outros.

Sistema de salud en Venezuela: ¿un paciente sin remedio? / The health system in Venezuela: a patient without medication? / O sistema de saúde na Venezuela: um paciente sem remédio?

La coyuntura venezolana está marcada por una profunda crisis socioeconómica que genera interrogantes sobre sus efectos en el sistema de salud. El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar las tendencias y la situación actual del sistema de salud venezolano, con especial énfasis en la financiación. Teniendo por base el marco de acción de la Organización Mundial de la Salud para el fortalecimiento de los sistemas de salud, fueron estudiados cinco de los seis componentes básicos del sistema, así como los resultados en términos de cobertura y salud de la población. El financiamiento de la salud en Venezuela resultó ser primordialmente privado, con un elevado y creciente componente de gasto de bolsillo que se coloca entre los mayores del mundo. Asimismo, el sector salud mostró una baja prioridad fiscal, con un gasto público reducido y vulnerable ante las oscilaciones de los precios del petróleo. Por otro lado, la prestación y el acceso efectivo a los servicios de salud se ha visto comprometido en años recientes, debido -entre otros factores- a la disminución en la disponibilidad de médicos, particularmente para algunas especialidades; fallas en la dotación y equipos médicos de los centros de salud; escasez de insumos médicos, medicamentos y vacunas, afectando la salud de la población que registra algunos retrocesos. Las características estructurales de la economía y la dinámica coyuntural socioeconómica han impactado en el sistema de salud venezolano, profundizando problemas de vieja data como la fragmentación, segmentación y "privatización" del sistema y provocando el surgimiento de nuevas dificultades como escasez de medicamentos, opacidad en la información, entre otros.

The situation in Venezuela is marked by a profound socioeconomic crisis that raises questions concerning its effects on the health system. The study's aim was to analyze the trends and current situation of the Venezuelan health system, with special emphasis on financing. Based on the World Health Organization's Framework for Action to Strengthen Health Systems, five of the system's six basic components were studied, along with the results in terms of coverage and the population's health. Healthcare financing in Venezuela proved to be primarily private, with a high and growing share of out-of-pocket expenditures, one of the highest in the world. The health sector is also assigned low fiscal priority, with a reduced public budget, vulnerable to fluctuations in oil prices. Meanwhile, health services provision and effective access have been jeopardized in recent years due to the decreased availability of physicians, particularly in some specialties, gaps in provision and medical equipment in health centers, and shortage of medical inputs, medicines, and vaccines, among other factors, affecting the population's health, worsening of several indicators. The economy's structural characteristics and socioeconomic dynamics have impacted the Venezuelan health system, aggravating longstanding problems like the system's fragmentation, segmentation, and "privatization", triggering the emergence of new difficulties like shortage of medicines and lack of accountability, among others.

A conjuntura venezuelana está caracterizada por uma profunda crise socioeconômica que gera interrogantes sobre os seus efeitos no sistema de saúde. O objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar as tendências e a situação atual do sistema de saúde venezuelano, com especial ênfase no financiamento. Tendo por base o marco de ação da Organização Mundial da Saúde para o fortalecimento dos sistemas de saúde, foram estudados cinco dos seis componentes básicos do sistema, assim como os resultados em termos de cobertura e saúde da população. O financiamento da saúde na Venezuela acabou por ser, sobretudo, privado, com um elevado e crescente componente de despesas diretas que fica entre os maiores do mundo. Além disso, o setor da saúde revelou uma baixa prioridade fiscal, com despesas públicas reduzidas e vulneráveis perante as oscilações dos preços do petróleo. Por outro lado, a prestação e o acesso efetivo aos serviços de saúde foram comprometidos nos anos recentes, devido -entre outros fatores- à redução na disponibilização de médicos, particularmente para algumas especialidades; falhas na dotação e equipes médicas dos centros de saúde; carência de material médico, remédios e vacinas, afetando a saúde da população que registra alguns retrocessos. As características estruturais da economia e a dinâmica conjuntural socioeconómica tem atingido o sistema de saúde venezuelano, aprofundando problemas de longa data como a fragmentação, segmentação e "privatização" do sistema, gerando o surgimento de novas dificuldades como a carência de medicamentos, ausência de transparência na informação, entre outros.

The efficacy and stability of an information and communication technology-based centralized monitoring system of adherence to immunosuppressive medication in kidney transplant recipients: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Immunosuppression non-adherence in kidney transplant recipients (KTRs) not only increases the risk of medical intervention due to acute rejection and graft loss but burdens the socioeconomic system in the form of increased healthcare costs. An aggressive preemptive effort by healthcare professionals, geared to ensure adherence to immunosuppressants in KTRs, is significant and imperative. METHODS/DESIGN: This study was designed as a prospective, open-label, multicenter, randomized controlled study aimed at evaluating the efficacy and stability of an information and communication technology (ICT)-based centralized monitoring system in boosting medication adherence in KTRs. One hundred fourteen KTRs registered throughout the year 2017 to 2018 are randomized into either the ICT-based centralized home monitoring system or to ambulatory follow-up. The planned follow-up duration is 6 months. The ICT-based centralized home monitoring system described consists of a smart pill box equipped with personal identification system, a home monitoring system, an electronic Case Report Form (eCRF) system, and a comprehensive clinical trial management system (CTMS). It alerts both patients and medical staff with texts and pill box alarms if there is a dosage/dosing time error or a missed dose. Medication adherence and transplant outcomes for the follow-up period are compared between the two groups, while patient satisfaction as well as the stability and cost-effectiveness of the ICT-based monitoring system are to be evaluated. DISCUSSION: This on-going study is expected to determine if consistent use of the ICT-based centralized monitoring system described could maximize mediation adherence and subsequently enhance transplant outcomes in KTRs. Further, it would lay the foundation for successful implementation of this ICT-based monitoring system for effective management of medication adherence in KTRs. TRIALS REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, Identifier: NCT03136588 . Registered on 20 April 2017.

Towards a theoretical model on medicines as a health need.

Medicines are considered one of the main tools of western medicine to resolve health problems. Currently, medicines represent an important share of the countries' healthcare budget. In the Latin America region, access to essential medicines is still a challenge, although countries have established some measures in the last years in order to guarantee equitable access to medicines. A theoretical model is proposed for analysing the social, political, and economic factors that modulate the role of medicines as a health need and their influence on the accessibility and access to medicines. The model was built based on a narrative review about health needs, and followed the conceptual modelling methodology for theory-building. The theoretical model considers elements (stakeholders, policies) that modulate the perception towards medicines as a health need from two perspectives - health and market - at three levels: international, national and local levels. The perception towards medicines as a health need is described according to Bradshaw's categories: felt need, normative need, comparative need and expressed need. When those different categories applied to medicines coincide, the patients get access to the medicines they perceive as a need, but when the categories do not coincide, barriers to access to medicines are created. Our theoretical model, which holds a broader view about the access to medicines, emphasises how power structures, interests, interdependencies, values and principles of the stakeholders could influence the perception towards medicines as a health need and the access to medicines in Latin American countries.

Implementing a perpetual anesthesia setup standardized for the trauma room in a level I trauma center.

The trauma room in a level I trauma center is a dynamic environment that provides little room for error. Significant variability can exist if anesthesia providers set up the room differently. Standardization provides a system that is consistent, reliable, and cost-effective. This study examines the process of creating and implementing a standardized anesthesia setup in the trauma room of a level I trauma center. As a result of this study, the medication cart and airway setups have been standardized. Providers are encouraged to only draw up medications that will be immediately used and to ensure that prefilled syringes have been incorporated into the pharmacy formulary. Using the EZ Endo prestyleted endotracheal tube (ETT) vs a regular ETT with stylet has yielded an annual cost savings of $2,673. Ensuring that items such as an esophageal temperature probe, humidifier, and nasogastric tube are available but unopened has provided a savings of $1,989.25 per year. The reservoir bag has been changed to a latex-free bag, and 3 central line kits including an arterial line kit are routinely stocked. An ultrasound machine dedicated for central line access, GlideScope, rapid fluid infuser, and Airtraq laryngoscope have all been incorporated into the permanent setup in the trauma room.

Community pharmacy-based medication therapy management services: financial impact for patients / Servicios de gestión de la medicación en farmacia comunitaria: impacto financiero para los pacientes

Objective: To determine the direct financial impact for patients resulting from Medication Therapy Management (MTM) interventions made by community pharmacists. Secondary objectives include evaluating the patient and physician acceptance rates of the community pharmacists’ recommended MTM interventions. Methods: This was a retrospective observational study conducted at 20 Price Chopper and Hen House grocery store chain pharmacies in the Kansas City metro area from January 1, 2010 to December 31, 2010. Study patients were Medicare Part D beneficiaries eligible for MTM services. The primary outcome was the change in patient out-ofpocket prescription medication expense as a result of MTM services. Results: Of 128 patients included in this study, 68% experienced no out-of-pocket financial impact on their medication expenses as a result of MTM services. A total of 27% of the patients realized a cost-savings (USD440.50 per year, (SD=289.69)) while another 5% of patients saw a cost increase in out-of-pocket expense (USD255.66 per year, (SD=324.48)). The net financial impact for all 128 patients who participated in MTM services was an average savings of USD102.83 per patient per year (SD=269.18, p<0.0001). Pharmacists attempted a total of 732 recommendations; 391 (53%) were accepted by both the patient and their prescriber. A total of 341 (47%) recommendations were not accepted because of patient refusal (290, 85%) or prescriber refusal (51, 15%). Conclusions: Patient participation in MTM services reduces patient out-of-pocket medication expense. However, this savings is driven by only 32% of subjects who are experiencing a financial impact on out-of-pocket medication expense. Additionally, the majority of the pharmacists’ recommended interventions (53%) were accepted by patients and prescribers (AU)

Objetivo: Determinar el impacto financiero directo para los pacientes resultando de las intervenciones de Gestión de la Medicación (MTM) hechas por farmacéuticos comunitarios. Los objetivos secundarios incluían evaluar las tasas de aceptación por pacientes y médicos de las recomendaciones de MTM de los farmacéuticos. Métodos: Fue un estudio observacional retrospectivo realizado en 20 tiendas de la cadena de farmacias Price Chopper and Hen House de la zona metropolitana de Kansas City desde 1 de enero 2010 a 31 de diciembre 2010. Los pacientes en estudio eran beneficiarios de Medicare Part D elegibles para servicios de MTM. El resultado primario fue los cambios en gastos sufragados por los pacientes de la medicación prescrita como resultado de los servicios de MTM. Resultados: De los 128 pacientes incluidos en el estudio, el 68% no experimentó impacto en sus gastos en medicación como resultado de los servicios de MTM. Un 27% de los pacientes consiguió un ahorro (USD440,50 por año, (SD=289,69)) mientras que otro 5% de pacientes vio incrementado su gasto en medicación (USD255,66 por año, (SD=324,48)). El impacto financiero neto para los 128 pacientes que participaron en el estudio fue un ahorro medio de USD102,83 por paciente y año (SD=269,18; p<0,0001). Los farmacéuticos intentaron un total de 732 recomendaciones; 391 (53%) fueron aceptadas tanto por pacientes como por prescriptor. Un total de 341 (47%) recomendaciones no fueron aceptadas, por negativa del paciente (290; 85%) o por negativa del prescriptor (51; 15%). Conclusiones: La participación de los pacientes en servicios de MTM reduce el gasto en medicamentos del paciente. Sin embargo, este ahorro se materializa sólo en un 32% de pacientes que sufren impacto financiero. Asimismo, la mayoría (53%) de las intervenciones recomendadas por el farmacéutico fueron aceptadas por pacientes y prescriptores (AU)

The economics of health information technology in medication management: a systematic review of economic evaluations.

OBJECTIVE: To conduct a systematic review and synthesis of the evidence surrounding the cost-effectiveness of health information technology (HIT) in the medication process. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Peer-reviewed electronic databases and gray literature were searched to identify studies on HIT used to assist in the medication management process. Articles including an economic component were reviewed for further screening. For this review, full cost-effectiveness analyses, cost-utility analyses and cost-benefit analyses, as well as cost analyses, were eligible for inclusion and synthesis. RESULTS: The 31 studies included were heterogeneous with respect to the HIT evaluated, setting, and economic methods used. Thus the data could not be synthesized, and a narrative review was conducted. Most studies evaluated computer decision support systems in hospital settings in the USA, and only five of the studied performed full economic evaluations. DISCUSSION: Most studies merely provided cost data; however, useful economic data involves far more input. A full economic evaluation includes a full enumeration of the costs, synthesized with the outcomes of the intervention. CONCLUSION: The quality of the economic literature in this area is poor. A few studies found that HIT may offer cost advantages despite their increased acquisition costs. However, given the uncertainty that surrounds the costs and outcomes data, and limited study designs, it is difficult to reach any definitive conclusion as to whether the additional costs and benefits represent value for money. Sophisticated concurrent prospective economic evaluations need to be conducted to address whether HIT interventions in the medication management process are cost-effective.

Perceived value and cost of providing emergency medication kits to home hospice patients in Maryland.

Many hospices have adopted the use of ''emergency medication kits'' (EMK) to allow for management of emergent symptoms and to prevent unscheduled patient interventions. The purpose of this study was to compare perceptions of hospice managers and clinicians regarding the value of EMK and to assess outcomes. Clinical managers and clinicians reported that EMK were valuable in preventing emergency department visits, unscheduled nursing visits, pharmacy deliveries, and increased satisfaction. A hospice using EMK reported fewer calls requiring unscheduled interventions (18% vs 33%) and resulted in cost savings (US$23.04 per call vs US$31.62 per call). Hospice managers and clinicians perceived EMK to be valuable in areas of quality, cost, and satisfaction. There appears to be an advantage to routinely providing EMK for home hospice patients.

Dispensed drugs and multiple medications in the Swedish population: an individual-based register study.

BACKGROUND: Multiple medications is a well-known potential risk factor in terms of patient's health. The aim of the present study was to estimate the prevalence of dispensed drugs and multiple medications in an entire national population, by using individual based data on dispensed drugs. METHODS: Analyses of all dispensed out-patient prescriptions in 2006 from the Swedish prescribed drug register. As a cut-off for multiple medications, we applied five or more different drugs dispensed (DP >or= 5) at Swedish pharmacies for a single individual during a 3-month, a 6-month, and a 12-month study period. For comparison, results were also calculated with certain drug groups excluded. RESULTS: 6.2 million individuals received at least one dispensed drug (DP >or= 1) during 12 months in 2006 corresponding to a prevalence of 67.4%; 75.6% for females and 59.3% for males. Individuals received on average 4.7 dispensed drugs per individual (median 3, Q1-Q3 2-6); females 5.0 (median 3, Q1-Q3 2-7), males 4.3 (median 3, Q1-Q3 1-6).The prevalence of multiple medications (DP >or= 5) was 24.4% for the entire population. The prevalence increased with age. For elderly 70-79, 80-89, and 90-years, the prevalence of DP >or= 5 was 62.4, 75.1, and 77.7% in the respective age groups. 82.8% of all individuals with DP >or= 1 and 64.9% of all individuals with DP >or= 5 were < 70 years. Multiple medications was more frequent for females (29.6%) than for males (19.2%). For individuals 10 to 39 years, DP >or= 5 was twice as common among females compared to males. Sex hormones and modulators of the genital system excluded, reduced the relative risk (RR) for females vs. males for DP >or= 5 from 1.5 to 1.4. The prevalence of DP >or= 1 increased from 45.1 to 56.2 and 67.4%, respectively, when the study period was 3, 6, and 12 respectively months and the corresponding prevalence of DP >or= 5 was 11.3, 17.2, and 24.4% respectively. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of dispensed drugs and multiple medications were extensive in all age groups and were higher for females than for males. Multiple medications should be regarded as a risk in terms of potential drug-drug interactions and adverse drug reactions in all age groups.

Costs associated with developing and implementing a computerized clinical decision support system for medication dosing for patients with renal insufficiency in the long-term care setting.

A team of physicians, pharmacists, and informatics professionals developed a CDSS added to a commercial electronic medical record system to provide prescribers with patient-specific maximum dosing recommendations based on renal function. We tracked the time spent by team members and used US national averages of relevant hourly wages to estimate costs. The team required 924.5 hours and $48,668.57 in estimated costs to develop 94 alerts for 62 drugs. The most time intensive phase of the project was preparing the contents of the CDSS (482.25 hours, $27,455.61). Physicians were the team members with the highest time commitment (414.25 hours, $25,902.04). Estimates under alternative scenarios found lower total cost estimates with the existence of a valid renal dosing database ($34,200.71) or an existing decision support add-on for renal dosing ($23,694.51). Development of a CDSS for a commercial computerized prescriber order entry system requires extensive commitment of personnel, particularly among clinical staff.

Costs of implementing a computerized prescription system in a public mental health agency.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this case report is to inform decision makers about costs associated with adding a computerized prescription component to an existing information system in specialty mental health agencies. METHODS: A computerized prescription system was implemented in four not-for-profit mental health agencies in an urban setting as part of a larger study looking at reducing racial disparities. This brief report describes the implementation costs at one agency with ten full-time-equivalent psychiatrists for which information was available on time devoted to implementation by the management information system personnel. The financial costs of the computer network hardware and software were also documented. RESULTS: The total initial cost was $27,607: preimplementation cost, $3,720; technology and system integration cost, $10,148; and training cost, $13,739. Annual ongoing cost was expected to be $14,725. CONCLUSIONS: The technology expenditure itself is not prohibitive for initial implementation as well as for ongoing support.

Nursing home medication administration cost minimization analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the time it takes nurses to administer medications in the nursing home setting, to calculate nursing cost of medication administration, and to determine whether using extended-release products are justified by decreasing nursing costs. DESIGN: Cost-minimization analysis using observational data from a time-motion analysis. SETTING: Two 150-bed nursing homes in rural eastern North Carolina. PARTICIPANTS: Nurses working during first and second shifts. MEASUREMENTS: Nurses were timed as they each administered medications to 12 patients. The mean time required to administer each dosage form was calculated. The cost of nursing time was based on the average nursing staff salary of $20.45 per hour as reported by the directors of nursing. Time and cost to dispense one more medication during an existing medication pass and an additional medication pass are calculated. RESULTS: The time to administer an additional dose of an oral medication to one patient was 45.01 seconds during an already scheduled medication pass and 63.05 seconds during a new medication pass. The cost of adding an oral medication once a day for a patient will cost $7.67 per month if administered at the same time as other medications or $10.74 per month if a new medication pass is required. The administration of other dosage forms, such as crushed, percutaneous enteroscopic gastrostomy, injection, and patch was more time involved and, thus, costlier. Formulas are provided to calculate medication administration cost based on local salary. CONCLUSIONS: Nursing time and costs for medication administration in the nursing home are great and should be considered when selecting a product. This may justify the selection of higher cost extended-release products.