Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions and Military Hygiene at the United States Military Academy between 1890 and 1910.

INTRODUCTION: Military installations are at increased risk for the transmission of infectious disease. Personnel who live and train on military installations live and train near one another facilitating disease transmission. An understanding of historical sanitation and hygiene can inform modern practices. This is especially pertinent considering the continuing rise of variants of infectious diseases, such as the recent pandemic of the 2019 severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. In this article, we review the rise and decline of infectious disease at the United States Military Academy (USMA) during the period spanning 1890 through 1910, and the public health interventions used to combat disease spread. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Primary data regarding cadet illness were acquired from the historical archives of the USMA. These included annual reports, clinical admission records, casualty ledgers, and sanitation reports. Unpublished documents from the medical history of USMA provide periodic trends of health among cadets because of infectious disease. RESULTS: Between 1890 and 1910, the USMA at West Point was confronted with cases of influenza, measles, mumps, scarlet fever, smallpox, typhus, and malaria. In response, a series of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) were instituted to curb the spread of infectious disease. These interventions most likely proved effective in suppressing the transmission of communicable diseases. The most common and arguably the most effective NPI was the physical separation of the sick from the well. CONCLUSIONS: The USMA experience mirrored what was occurring in the larger U.S. Army in the early 20th century and may serve as a model for the application of NPIs in response to modern infectious diseases resulting from novel or unknown etiologies.

Fit to fight - from military hygiene to wellbeing in the British Army.

This paper reviews the historical evolution of the language and organization surrounding the health of personnel in the British Army from 'hygiene' through  to 'wellbeing'. It starts by considering the health of the army in the mid-nineteenth century and the emergence of military hygiene as a professional subject. It continues by looking at advances in military hygiene in the two world wars. Hygiene was replaced by the term 'health' in the 1950s as the collective noun used by professionals working in this field. This unity split when the professions of occupational medicine and public health established separate faculties and training pathways. However, the health issues for the armed forces remain fundamentally unchanged. Going forward, the term 'wellbeing' is helping to refresh the close relationships between executives, their medical advisers and those within the population of health professions charged with keeping the British Army healthy. The core theme is the collaborations between civil society, executive leadership and medical services in maximizing the health of the military population from recruitment through to life as a veteran.

L'épidémiologie entre le terrain des épidémies et l'approche populationnelle, XIX-XXe siècle.

TITLE: L'épidémiologie entre le terrain des épidémies et l'approche populationnelle, XIX-XXe siècle. ABSTRACT: L'émergence d'une épidémiologie moderne est fréquemment associée au basculement de la discipline, d'une science des épidémies vers une science des populations. L'avènement et le développement d'une épidémiologie fondée sur une approche statistique et mathématique n'exclut cependant pas la persistance d'une épidémiologie sur le terrain des épidémies, dans le sillage de l'hygiène publique et de la bactériologie triomphante du tournant des XIXe et XXe siècles. De plus, l'histoire de l'épidémiologie ne saurait être cantonnée à une histoire de savoirs scientifiques ou de savoir-faire techniques et organisationnels. Elle doit intégrer, plus sans doute encore que d'autres branches de la médecine, les dimensions économiques et politiques qui participèrent à l'institutionnalisation et au développement de la discipline et à son inscription dans les processus de décision.

Pedro Mallo (1837-1899). A ciento veinte años de su desaparición física / Pedro Mallo (1837-1899). This work aims to commemorate the 120 years since his death

Este trabajo científico conmemora al Dr. Pedro Mallo a ciento veinte años de su muerte. Fue un médico militar dinámico e innovador, docente y destacado historiador de la medicina. Realizó importantes contribuciones en el campo de la sanidad militar. (AU)

This work aims to commemorate Dr. Pedro Mallo to his 120 years of his death. He was a clinician, military doctor dynamic and innovative, prominent historian of medicine, teacher. He made contributions in field of military health. (AU)

Asistencia sanitaria y salud pública en Talavera de la Reina durante la Guerra Civil (1936-1939) / Health Care and Public Health in Talavera de la Reina during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

El presente trabajo pretende analizar de forma integrada los efectos de la guerra civil española sobre la población y los servicios sanitarios de Talavera de la Reina, ciudad clave en el desarrollo de la contienda debido a su ubicación geográfica entre Andalucía occidental, Extremadura y Madrid. Para ello, se ha trabajado con documentación del Archivo Municipal de Talavera de la Reina, del Archivo del Centro Secundario de Higiene Rural de Talavera de la Reina, del Archivo Histórico Provincial de Toledo y del Archivo General Militar de Ávila. En primer lugar, se presenta el grupo de cinco hospitales militares que funcionaron en la ciudad, su organización y actividad, reconstruida a partir de los diferentes modelos de fichas utilizadas. La actividad preventiva se analiza desde dos puntos de vista, las órdenes emanadas de la autoridad militar, centradas en la higiene, alimentación y prevención de enfermedades infecciosas, y las actuaciones llevadas a cabo por las autoridades locales, centradas en asegurar un correcto abastecimiento de agua y recogida de residuos. Además, se expone la situación insalubre de las prisiones de la ciudad, siendo un claro ejemplo del estado sanitario del momento

This work aims to comprehensively analyse the effects of the Spanish civil war on the population and the sanitary services of Talavera de la Reina, a key city in the development of the contest due to its geographic location between Andalusia Western, Extremadura and Madrid. To this end, he has worked with documentation of the Municipal Archives of Talavera de la Reina, the archive of the secondary Centre of Rural hygiene in Talavera de la Reina, the Provincial historical archive of Toledo and the military general archive of Ávila. First, appears the Group of five military hospitals that operated in the city, its organization and activity, reconstructed from different models used chips. Preventive activity is analysed from two points of view, the orders emanating from the military authority, with a focus on hygiene, food and prevention of infectious diseases, and the actions carried out by the local authorities, centred ensure a proper water supply and waste collection. In addition, exposed the unhealthy situation in prisons in the city, is a clear example of the State of the health of the moment

Génesis de la sanidad militar y el primer médico militar en Cuba / Genesis of military health and the first military doctor in Cuba

Introducción: al cesar la dominación española en Cuba y establecerse la República comenzó la creación de las instituciones que la formarían. Surgen los cuerpos armados como una necesidad para cuidar el orden interior y la seguridad de la nación. Objetivo: exponer algunos rasgos de la sanidad militar en su periodo fundacional y ahondar en datos biográficos de su primer integrante, iniciador de esta etapa de la medicina militar cubana. Métodos: se realizó una revisión bibliográfica, se empleó el método historiográfico analítico - sintético, se constataron los datos sobre el origen y evolución de la sanidad militar en Cuba. Desarrollo: el doctor Jorge Vega Lamar, con el grado de capitán, fue el primer médico de la sanidad militar. Con anterioridad cumplió deberes patrióticos en la Guerra de 1895. Como médico integró expediciones armadas y el cuerpo de sanidad militar del Ejército Libertador, alcanzando por sus méritos el grado de Teniente Coronel. Conclusiones: los resultados contribuyen a enriquecer la historiografía de la medicina militar(AU)

Introduction: When the Spanish domination in Cuba ceased and the Republic was established, the creation of the institutions that would form it began. Armed bodies emerge as a need to take care of the internal order and the security of the nation. Objective: To set out some features of the military health in its foundational period and delve into biographical data of its first member, initiator of this stage of Cuban military medicine. Methods: A bibliographic review was carried out, the analytical - synthetic historiographic method was used, data on the origin and evolution of military health in Cuba were verified. Body: Doctor Jorge Vega Lamar, with the rank of captain, was the first doctor of military health. Previously, he fulfilled patriotic duties in the War of 1895. As a physician he integrated armed expeditions and the military health corps of the Liberation Army, reaching by his merits the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. Conclusions: the results contribute to enrich the historiography of military medicine(AU)

[Sanitary-hygienic and antiepidemic support for the Red army during the last stage of the Great Patriotic War (1944-1945)].

Sanitation measures of the final period of World War II included the sanitary surveillance of water and power forces, observation of their placement and content of the territory occupied by them, monitor the implementation of military rules of personal hygiene and health education. The content of anti-epidemic measures was control of vectors of infectious and parasitic diseases, the protection of troops against the penetration of these diseases from the outside, the sanitary-epidemiological investigation and vaccination of staff, early detection and isolation of infectious patients, their timely hospitalization, disinfection of the source of infection, identify the sources of infection and epidemiological surveillance behind the hearth. Epidemiological welfare of the Red Army has been achieved by the virtue of the hard and persistent work of many thousands of military doctors, good organization of anti-epidemic protection of troops and use of military medical service of science.

[Scientist-hygienist, teacher and public figure (to the 100th anniversary of birthday of professor Koshelev N F].

Koshelev N.F. made a significant contribution to the development of general and military hygiene. Under his leadership at the S.M.Kirov Military Medical Academy were actively conducted researchers in the field of general hygiene, hygiene, military labour, water, food and sanitation support for the troops formed a new way of hygienic structure understanding, its goals, methods, object and subject of study. Koshelev N.F. developed provisions oJ methodological basics, structure and algorithm of hygienic diagnostics. He also defined basic principles of the universal theory of hygienic regulation and developed its structure, made a number of other original theoretical positions. Koshelev N.F. created a scientific, school, continues the best traditions of domestic hygiene.

Vida y obra del General de Brigada Silverio Sánchez Figueras / Life and work of the General of Brigade Silverio Sánchez Figueras

El conocimiento de la Historia de Cuba es una de las premisas fundamentales en la formación de un profesional de la salud. Las personalidades de la etapa independentista generaron un legado de valores dignos de mantener: patriotismo, humanismo y solidaridad. En muchas ocasiones se aprende del actuar de individuos que no tuvieron formación médica, pero que dedicaron parte de su vida a facilitar, desde sus roles y funciones, las acciones sanitarias durante la guerra. Es ese el caso del general de brigada Silverio Sánchez Figueras, hombre de confianza de Antonio Maceo. En este trabajo se hace una reseña de su vida política y militar y se refiere como en su vinculación con el Dr. Félix Figueredo, miembro de la Sanidad Militar en la “Protesta”, logra mantener un control sanitario constante y monitorear las enfermedades a que estuvieron expuestos los mambises cubanos(AU)

Knowing Cuban history is one of the main premises in the training of a health professional. The personalities of the Cuban independence war generated a legacy of values that is worth to maintain: patriotism, humanism and solidarity. In many cases we learn from the behaviour of individuals that did not have a medical formation, but who dedicated part of their lives to facilitate the sanitary actions during the war, because of their roles and functions. That is the case of the general of brigade Silverio Sanchez Figueras, Antonio Maceos trusted man. In this work we make a review of his military and political life, and refer how, through a fruitful relationship with MD Felix Figueredo, member of the Military Health Corpus in the “Protest of Baragua”, he kept a constant sanitary control and monitored the diseases to which Cuban mambises were exposed(AU)

[The contribution of the Archive of the Military Medical Museum in summarizing the experience of the Great Patriotic War].

During 70 years of existence of the Military Medical Museum one of its main goals was to create an archive of military medical documents, the formation of his ideology and collecting funds, saving and promotion of unique materials related to the history of Russia, feat of arms Defenders of the Fatherland in the wars of the XX century. Creating a military medical museum archive was conceived in the beginning of the Great Patriotic War by leading figures of the military medicine--E.I.Smirnov, S.M.Bagdasaryan, V.N.Shevkunenko, A.N.Maksimenkov, who offered to collect all materials about the work of physicians at the front and in the rear, to consider the archive as a base for scientific works on the history of the military health care. Today the archive was removed from the Army Medical Museum and now it is a branch of the Central Archive of the Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation (military medical records). His staff keeps the traditions established by predecessors and use in their activities a wealth of experience and background research.

[To the 80th anniversary of the 637th center of the state sanitary and epidemiological surveillance].

In March 2015 marked the 80th anniversary of the creation of the 637th Center of State Sanitary and Epidemiological Surveillance. The date of establishment of the Centre is rooted in the pre-war period, when sanitary-epidemiological laboratories of the Black Sea Fleet were organized as a scientific and methodological institution. During the Great Patriotic War, as well as during the early postwar period, the staff of the Centre carried out valuable work on provision of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the Black Sea Fleet. Later, soldiers of the Center participated in the aftermath of the Chernobyl accident, fulfilling their international duty in the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, on the island of Dahlak, as well as in the Chechen Republic during the anti-terrorist operation. During its existence, the Centre repeatedly reorganized and is now an institution that successfully solves the problem of ensuring sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the troops in the area of responsibility.

[Sanitary state of the ships of the Baltic fleet and development of the navy hygiene in the 18th century].

Sanitary and hygienic state of the Baltic navy ships in the 18th century was considered as unsatisfactory due to inappropriate habitation conditions answering hygienic requirements. The reason for the low ship habitation of that time was limited technological possibilities of the sail shipbuilding, lack of appropriate labour, and life and rest conditions for navy servicemen. In fact, wooden ships were not suitable for life activity of the navy crew, but contributed to disease increase. Because of the rapid development of the' navy hygiene and improvement of shipbuilding technologies, sanitary and hygienic state of local navy ships had became improving. With a glance on recommendations, developed by physicians D.P.Sinopeus and A.G.Bakherakht, were made following improvements: were implemented ventilators on ships, daily fumigation of ships rooms, monitoring of personal hygiene.

Médicos en el Ejército Libertador / Doctors in the Liberation Army

Se realizó una revisión bibliográfica para connotar algunos oficiales médicos presentes en las contiendas del ejército libertador en las tres guerras por la independencia del siglo XIX. Se citan 52 médicos que intervinieron en los distintos cuerpos del ejército libertador así como 4 enfermeras no graduadas que tuvieron acciones de sanidad dentro del ejército con el grado de Capitán. Del total 33 fueron Coroneles, 3 tenientes coroneles, 14 Generales de Brigadas y dos Mayores Generales, dos de los cuales eran nacidos en otros países, y varios cumplieron dentro del ejército funciones no relacionadas con la sanidad. Después de instaurada la República, 32 de ellos ocuparon cargos públicos, e incluso la presidencia de la república; solo cuatro murieron en combate y cinco dedicaron esfuerzos a la docencia en tiempo de paz. Se ubican por cuerpos del ejército y se plasman datos más relevantes de los mismos (AU)

A literature review was carried out to know some medical officers present in the liberation army battles in three wars for independence of the nineteenth century. 52 doctors that participated in various Liberation Army force are arrange and four not graduate nurses who had health actions within the army with the Captain rank. From the total 33 were colonels, three lieutenant colonels, 14 brigadier general and two Major Generals that the last two men were born in other countries, and they did several functions unrelated to health. After the Republic were established 32 of them held public office, and even the president of the Republic, only four were killed in action and five dedicated efforts to teaching in peacetime. They are located by army corps and relevant data are mentioned (AU)

[40th anniversary of the 736th Main Center of State Sanitary and Epidemiological Surveillance of the Russian Defense Ministry].

In November 2012 736th Main Center of State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation celebrates 40th anniversary. It is a multidisciplanary prevention and treatment facility of high level standing at the top of the sanitary-epidemiological institutions of the army and navy. The Main Center is included into a united, centralized system of state sanitary-epidemiological control of Russia with the main purpose--organization and conduction of surveillance and anti-epidemic (preventive) measures in the army and navy. The article provides a consistent presentation of historical perspective of creation and development of the institution and its mission today.

La evolución de la Sanidad Militar en Valencia durante La Guerra Civil Española (1936-1939) / The evolution of Military Health in Valencia during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

Antecedentes y objetivos: Tras la insurrección militar del 18 de julio de 1936 el Ejército de la República quedó parcialmente desarticulado, resultando afectada la Sanidad Militar. En el caso de Valencia, ésta fue asumida rápidamente por el Comité Sanitario Popular, un organismo revolucionario que lideró la respuesta sanitaria de Valencia a la Guerra Civil. Posteriormente, el Gobierno Republicano procedió a recuperar el poder a través de medidas de carácter centralizador, como fue la militarización de algunos hospitales. Fue entonces cuando volvió a articularse una auténtica Sanidad Militar. El objetivo de este trabajo es estudiar la evolución de la Sanidad Militar en Valencia, una de las zonas republicanas más importantes. Material y métodos: Se analiza la documentación generada por los abundantes hospitales instalados en la ciudad de Valencia, estudiando los cambios que se produjeron tras la militarización de algunos centros sanitarios. Esta información ha sido consultada en el Archivo de la Excma. Diputación Provincial de Valencia. Resultados: La Sanidad Militar en Valencia durante la Guerra Civil española atravesó varias etapas, evolucionado desde la improvisación inicial a la posterior organización. Conclusiones: Se establece una relación bidireccional entre el grado de organización de la Sanidad Militar y la efectividad de la tropa (AU)

Precedents and purposes: After the military insurrection of July 18, 1936 the Republican Army remained partially dismantled, affecting Military Health. In case of Valencia, it was assumed rapidly by Sanitary Popular Committee, a revolutionary organism that led the sanitary response of Valencia to the Civil War. Later, the Republican Government proceeded to recover power throghout centralizing measures, as the militarization of some hospitals. At this the time an authentic Military Health returned to be articulated. The aim of this work is to study the evolution of Military Health in Valencia, one of the most important republican zones. Material and method: Documentation generated by the abundant hospitals installed in the city of Valencia is analyzed, studying as well changes that took place after militarization of some sanitary centers. This information has been consulted in the File of the County Council of Valencia. Results: Military Health in Valencia during the Spanish Civil War went through several stages, as it evolved from initial improvisation to later organization. Conclusions: A bidirectional relation is established between the degree of Military Health organization and troop’s efficiency (AU)

Fabricando o soldado, forjando o cidadão: o doutor Eduardo Augusto Pereira de Abreu, a Guerra do Paraguai e a educação física no Brasil / Molding soldiers, forming citizens: doctor Eduardo Augusto Pereira de Abreu, the Paraguayan War, and physical education in Brazil

Discute a obra de Eduardo Augusto Pereira de Abreu, Estudos higiênicos sobre a educação física, intelectual e moral do soldado, publicada em 1867, a qual, marcada pela experiência da Guerra do Paraguai, foi uma das primeiras produções em que se buscou explicitamente unir preocupações médicas e militares, bem como estabelecer nítida conexão entre a fabricação de um combatente e o forjar de um cidadão, ambos prontos para defender a pátria. Nela, a prática de atividades físicas ligadas ao civismo, ao vigor e à saúde foi apresentada como de grande relevância, antecipando e influenciando futuros debates nacionais sobre a importância da educação física.(AU)

Fabricando o soldado, forjando o cidadão: o doutor Eduardo Augusto Pereira de Abreu, a Guerra do Paraguai e a educação física no Brasil / Molding soldiers, forming citizens: doctor Eduardo Augusto Pereira de Abreu, the Paraguayan War, and physical education in Brazil

Discute a obra de Eduardo Augusto Pereira de Abreu, Estudos higiênicos sobre a educação física, intelectual e moral do soldado, publicada em 1867, a qual, marcada pela experiência da Guerra do Paraguai, foi uma das primeiras produções em que se buscou explicitamente unir preocupações médicas e militares, bem como estabelecer nítida conexão entre a fabricação de um combatente e o forjar de um cidadão, ambos prontos para defender a pátria. Nela, a prática de atividades físicas ligadas ao civismo, ao vigor e à saúde foi apresentada como de grande relevância, antecipando e influenciando futuros debates nacionais sobre a importância da educação física.