Photovoltaics, plasmonics, plastic antibodies and electrochromism combined for a novel generation of self-powered and self-signalled electrochemical biomimetic sensors.

This work describes further developments into the self-powered and self-signalled biosensing system that merges photovoltaic cells, plastic antibodies and electrochromic cells into a single target. Herein, the plasmonic effect is introduced to improve the photoanode features of the photovoltaic cell, a dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC), and better electrocatalytic features are introduced in the electrode containing the sensing element. In brief, the DSSC had a counter-electrode of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) on an FTO glass modified by a plastic antibody of 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene and pyrrol. The photoanode had dye sensitized TiO2 modified with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to increase the cell efficiency, aiming to improve the sensitivity of the response of hybrid device for the target biomarker. The target biomarker was carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA). The response of the hybrid device evidenced a linear trend from 0.1 ng/mL to 10 µg/mL, with an anionic slope of 0.1431 per decade concentration. The response of the plastic antibody for CEA revealed great selectivity against other tumour markers (CA 15-3 or CA 125). The colour response of the electrochromic cell was also CEA concentration dependent and more sensitive when the hybrid device was set-up with a photoanode with AuNPs. A more intense blue colour was obtained when higher concentrations of CEA were present. Overall, this improved version of the self-powered and self-signalled set-up has zero-requirements and is particularly suitable for point-of-care analysis (POC). It is capable of screening CEA in real samples and differentiating clinical levels of interest. This concept opens new horizons into the current cancer screening approaches.

An ultrasensitive aptasensor based on self-enhanced Au nanoclusters as highly efficient electrochemiluminescence indicator and multi-site landing DNA walker as signal amplification.

Gold nanoclusters (Au NCs) have been shown to be prospective nanoscale electrochemiluminescence (ECL) materials that are being extensively explored in bioanalysis. However, the low ECL efficiency of Au NCs has been a bottleneck barrier for their better bioapplications. To overcome this disadvantage, a low oxidation potential co-reactant N,N-diisopropylethylenediamine (DPEA) was first used to prepare self-enhanced Au NCs (Au-DPEA NCs) for drastically enhancing the ECL efficiency of Au NCs in this study. In addition, an efficient multi-site landing DNA walker with multidirectional motion track and rapid payloads release compared to directional DNA walker was constructed for converting target mucin 1 (MUC1) to intermediate DNA and achieving significant signal amplification. On the basis of the Au-DPEA NCs as efficient ECL signal labels and multi-site landing DNA walker as signal amplification strategy, an ECL aptasensor was established for the ultrasensitive detection of MUC1 in the range from 1 fg mL-1 to 1 ng mL-1 with a limit of detection down to 0.54 fg mL-1. The results demonstrated that the present study opened a new research direction for the development of high-efficiency Au NCs indicator as well as ultrasensitive ECL sensing platform for applications in clinical and bioanalysis.

Aptasensors as a new sensing technology developed for the detection of MUC1 mucin: A review.

Mucin 1 protein (MUC1) is a membrane-associated glycoprotein overexpressed in the majority of human malignancies and considered as a predominant protein biomarker in cancers. Owing to the crucial role of MUC1 in cancer dissemination and metastasis, detection and quantification of this biomarker is of great importance in clinical diagnostics. Today, there exist a wide variety of strategies for the determination of various types of disease biomarkers, especially MUC1. In this regard, aptamers, as artificial single-stranded DNA or RNA oligonucleotides with catalytic and receptor properties, have drawn lots of attention for the development of biosensing platforms. So far, various sensitivity-enhancement techniques in combination with a broad range of smart nanomaterials have integrated into the design of novel aptamer-based biosensors (aptasensors) to improve detection limit and sensitivity of analyte determination. This review article provides a brief classification and description of the research progresses of aptamer-based biosensors and nanobiosensors for the detection and quantitative determination of MUC1 based on optical and electrochemical platforms.

Disposable electrochemical detection of breast cancer tumour marker CA 15-3 using poly(Toluidine Blue) as imprinted polymer receptor.

In this work, electrically-conducting poly(Toludine Blue) was employed for the first time as synthetic receptor film, prepared by Molecular Imprinting strategies and using electrochemical methods, for the specific screening of breast cancer biomarker Carbohydrate Antigen 15-3 (CA 15-3). The protein imprinted poly(Toluidine Blue) film was grown in a pre-formed Toluidine Blue (TB) tailed SAM at the AuSPE surface, which greatly enhanced the stability against degradation of the Molecular Imprinted Polymer (MIP) film at the electrode surface. The MIP receptor film recognition ability towards the protein was investigated by fitting data to Freundlich isotherm. The binding affinity (KF) obtained for the MIP system was significantly higher (~ 12-fold) to that obtained for the NIP system, demonstrating the success of the approach in creating imprinted materials that specifically respond to CA 15-3 protein. The incubation of the MIP modified electrode with increasing concentration of protein (from 0.10 U mL-1 to 1000 U mL-1) resulted in a decrease of the ferro/ferricyanide redox current. The device displayed linear response from 0.10 U mL-1 to 100 U mL-1 and LODs below 0.10 U mL-1 were obtained from calibration curves built in neutral buffer and diluted artificial serum, using DPV technique, enabling the detection of the protein biomarker at clinically relevant levels. The developed MIP biosensor was applied to the determination of CA 15-3 in spiked serum samples with satisfactory results. The developed device provides a new strategy for sensitive, rapid, simple and cost-effective screening of CA 15-3 biomarker. Importantly, the overall approach seems suitable for point-of-care (PoC) use in clinical context.

Ultrasensitive electrochemiluminescence immunoassay for simultaneous determination of CA125 and CA15-3 tumor markers based on PAMAM-sulfanilic acid-Ru(bpy)32+ and PAMAM-CdTe@CdS nanocomposite.

A multiplex ultrasensitive electrochemiluminescence (ECL) immunoassay was developed for the simultaneous determination of two different tumor markers, cancer antigen 153 (CA 15-3) and cancer antigen 125 (CA 125) using polyamidoamine dendrimer-quantum dots (PAMAM-QDs) and PAMAM-sulfanilic acid-Ru(bpy)32+ as the signal probes and Fe3O4-SiO2 as a magnetic bead. The CdTe@CdS- QDs and Ru(bpy)32+ at the presence of tripropyl amine (TPA) as coreactant generate ECL at an applied voltage of + 1.2V (vs Ag/AgCl) in two different wavelengths 500 and 620nm, respectively. Based on this strategy, the simultaneous detection of two tumor markers in single run carried out. This dual signal amplification technique was achieved by employing Fe3O4@SiO2-dendrimer as immunosensing platform and PAMAM as the carrier for immobilizing CdTe@CdS and Ru(bpy)32+ probes. Experimental results illustrated that the designed immunosensor can be used to sequentially detection of CA 125 and CA 15-3 markers with the wide linear ranges of 1µU/mL to 1U/mL and 0.1mU/mL to 100U/mL with very low detection limits of 0.1µU/mL and 10µU/mL, respectively. The application of the immunosensor for simultaneous detection of CA125 and CA15-3 in human serum samples was evaluated and the obtained results were found to be in acceptable agreement with the those obtained with an ELISA assay as reference method. The proposed ECL immunosensor can provide a simple, sensitive and reliable approach for the simultaneous detection of tumor markers in clinical samples.

Simplified approach for in-vitro production and purification of cell derived Cancer Antigen 15-3.

Cancer antigen 15-3 (CA15-3) is a key biomarker, currently used for understanding the onset and prognosis of breast cancer. In present investigation, CA15-3 has been purified from the culture supernatant of breast cancer T47-D cell line with 76% yield and 3350 fold purification. Isolated CA15-3 was analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), immunoblotting (western blotting), chemiluminescence immunoassay (CLIA) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). CA15-3 is a monomeric protein with an apparent molecular mass in between ∼250-350kDa. The FTIR spectroscopy revealed similar profiles of T47-D derived CA15-3 and commercially available CA15-3 protein. With the easy availability of T47-D cell line and a simple purification approach described here will support for the large scale production of CA15-3 to be used for various clinical and diagnostic applications.

Multiplexed aptasensor for simultaneous detection of carcinoembryonic antigen and mucin-1 based on metal ion electrochemical labels and Ru(NH3)63+ electronic wires.

In this paper, a dual-target electrochemical aptasensor has been developed for simultaneous detection of carcinoembryonic antigen and mucin-1 based on metal ion electrochemical labels and Ru(NH3)63+ electronic wires. When targets are present, the interaction between targets and their respective aptamers leads to the dissociation of double-strand DNA because the targets have higher affinity to its aptamer than the complementary strand. And the qualitative and quantitative analyses of the two targets are realized by the differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) peaks generated by metal ion electrochemical labels. For the effective loading of a large number of metal ions, Au/bovine serum albumin (Au/BSA) nanospheres are employed as carriers to develop Au/BSA-metal ions. After Ru(NH3)63+ complexes are embedded into double-strand DNA to form the electronic wires, the electrical conductivity and the electron transfer of the detection system are greatly improved. The detection limit of the proposed assay was calculated as 3.33fM ranging from 0.01pM to 100nM. Therefore, this novel sensing assay provides a new and sensitive platform for detecting several targets simultaneously in biochemical research and clinical diagnosis.

Ultrasensitive Nanoimmunosensor by coupling non-covalent functionalized graphene oxide platform and numerous ferritin labels on carbon nanotubes.

An ultrasensitive electrochemical nanostructured immunosensor for a breast cancer biomarker carbohydrate antigen 15-3 (CA 15-3) was fabricated using non-covalent functionalized graphene oxides (GO/Py-COOH) as sensor probe and multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNTs)-supported numerous ferritin as labels. The immunosensor was constructed by immobilizing a monoclonal anti-CA 15-3 antibody on the GO modified cysteamine (Cys) self-assembled monolayer (SAM) on an Au electrode (Au/Cys) through the amide bond formation between the carboxylic acid groups of GO/Py-COOH and amine groups of anti-CA 15-3. Secondary antibody conjugated MWCNT-supported ferritin labels (Ab2-MWCNT-Ferritin) were prepared through the amide bond formation between amine groups of Ab2 and ferritin and carboxylic acid groups of MWCNTs. The detection of CA 15-3 was based on the enhanced bioelectrocatalytic reduction of hydrogen peroxide mediated by hydroquinone (HQ) at the GO/Py-COOH-based sensor probe. The GO/Py-COOH-based sensor probe and Ab2-MWCNT-Ferritin labels were characterized using cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM), and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) techniques. Using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) technique, CA 15-3 can be selectively detected as low as 0.01 ± 0.07 U/mL in human serum samples. Additionally, the proposed CA 15-3 immunosensor showed excellent selectivity and better stability in human serum samples, which demonstrated that the proposed immunosensor has potentials in proteomic researches and diagnostics.

Diagnostic accuracy of epithelial membrane antigen for malignant effusions: a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Body cavity fluid examination sometimes presents a diagnostic challenge in cytology practice. This meta-analysis was undertaken to comprehensively assess the diagnostic potential of epithelial membrane antigen (EMA) in malignant effusions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All relevant original articles about EMA in the diagnosis of malignant effusions published up to July 1, 2014 were retrieved. The overall sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative likelihood ratio, diagnostic odds ratio, and summary receiver operating characteristic (SROC) curve were pooled to evaluate the diagnostic value of EMA for malignant effusions using the Meta-Disc 1.4 and STATA 12.0 statistical software. RESULTS: Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis and the summary estimates for EMA in the diagnosis of malignant effusions were as follows: sensitivity 0.9 (95% CI 0.83-0.87), specificity 0.87 (95% CI 0.96-0.99), positive likelihood ratio 5.8 (95% CI 15.59-36.37), negative likelihood ratio 0.15 (95% CI 0.07-0.20) and diagnostic odds ratio 52.63 (95% CI 20.91-132.49). The SROC curve indicated that the maximum joint sensitivity and specificity (Q-value) was 0.88; the area under the curve was 0.94. CONCLUSION: The present meta-analysis indicated that EMA may be a useful diagnostic tool with good sensitivity and specificity for differentiating malignant effusions from benign effusions.

Establishment of a heterotypic 3D culture system to evaluate the interaction of TREG lymphocytes and NK cells with breast cancer.

Three-dimensional (3D) culture approaches to investigate breast tumour progression are yielding information more reminiscent of the in vivo microenvironment. We have established a 3D Matrigel system to determine the interactions of luminal phenotype MCF-7 cells and basal phenotype MDA-MB-231 cells with regulatory T lymphocytes and Natural Killer cells. Immune cells were isolated from peripheral blood using magnetic cell sorting and their phenotype validated using flow cytometry both before and after activation with IL-2 and phytohaemagglutinin. Following the establishment of the heterotypic culture system, tumour cells displayed morphologies and cell-cell associations distinct to that observed in 2D monolayer cultures, and associated with tissue remodelling and invasion processes. We found that the level of CCL4 secretion was influenced by breast cancer phenotype and immune stimulation. We further established that for RNA extraction, the use of proteinase K in conjunction with the Qiagen RNeasy Mini Kit and only off-column DNA digestion gave the best RNA yield, purity and integrity. We also investigated the efficacy of the culture system for immunolocalisation of the biomarkers oestrogen receptor-α and the glycoprotein mucin 1 in luminal phenotype breast cancer cells; and epidermal growth factor receptor in basal phenotype breast cancer cells, in formalin-fixed, paraffin-wax embedded cultures. The expression of these markers was shown to vary under immune mediation. We thus demonstrate the feasibility of using this co-culture system for downstream applications including cytokine analysis, immunolocalisation of tumour biomarkers on serial sections and RNA extraction in accordance with MIQE guidelines.

Sensitive electrochemiluminescence detection for CA15-3 based on immobilizing luminol on dendrimer functionalized ZnO nanorods.

In this study, we constructed a novel electrochemiluminescence (ECL) immunosensor for sensitive and selective detection of carbohydrate antigen 15-3 (CA15-3) by using polyamidoamine (PAMAM)-functionalized ZnO nanorods (ZNs-PAMAM) as carriers. PAMAM dendrimers with hyper-branched and three-dimensional structure were used as linked reagents for co-immobilization of luminol and CA15-3 detection antibody on the ZNs to prepare the signal probe. In addition, ZNs could hasten the decomposition of H2O2 to generate various reactive oxygen species (ROSs) which accelerated the ECL reaction of luminol with amplified ECL intensity. Compared with luminol in the detection solution, the ECL efficiencies of luminol could be improved by immobilizing luminol on the electrode due to the smaller distance between luminescence reagent and the electrode surface. Moreover, the electrodepositing gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) on the bare glass carbon electrode (GCE) with enhanced surface area could capture a large amount of primary anti-CA15-3 to improve the sensitivity of the immunosensor. Under the optimized experimental conditions, a wide linear range of 0.1-120 U mL(-1) was acquired with a relatively low detection limit of 0.033 U mL(-1) (S/N=3) for CA15-3.

Determination of glycan motifs using serial lectin affinity chromatography.

Serial lectin affinity chromatography is a convenient technique for characterizing glycan motifs (terminal glycan structures) of glycoproteins or released glycans. When these glycoconjugates are applied serially or in parallel to lectin-immobilized columns, information regarding the glycan motifs can be obtained. We demonstrate lectin affinity chromatographic methods for determining O-linked glycan structures of MUC1 purified from a breast cancer cell line, YMB-S, N-linked glycan structures of serum prostate-specific antigen from prostate cancer, and serum alkaline phosphatases from choriocarcinoma. These lectin-fractionated samples are analyzed quantitatively by measuring radioactivity, antigen contents are analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and enzymatic activities are assessed.

Differential glycan analysis of an endogenous glycoprotein: toward clinical implementation--from sample pretreatment to data standardization.

There are huge numbers of clinical specimens being stored that contain potential diagnostic marker molecules buried by the coexistence of high-abundance proteins. To utilize such valuable stocks efficiently, we must develop appropriate techniques to verify the molecules. Glycoproteins with disease-related glycosylation changes are a group of useful molecules that have long been recognized, but their application is not fully implemented. The technology for comparative analysis of such glycoproteins in biological specimens has tended to be left behind, which often leads to loss of useful information without it being recognized. In this chapter, we feature antibody-assisted lectin profiling employing antibody-overlay lectin microarray, the most suitable technology for comparative glycoanalysis of a trace amount of glycoproteins contained in biological specimens. We believe that sharing this detailed protocol will accelerate the glycoproteomics-based discovery of glyco-biomarkers that has attracted recent attention; simultaneously, it will increase the value of clinical specimens as a gold mine of information that has yet to be exploited.

Purified human breast milk MUC1 and MUC4 inhibit human immunodeficiency virus.

BACKGROUND: The HIV-AIDS pandemic is prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa. Breastfeeding is a risk factor, with transmission from mother to child being as high as 40%. OBJECTIVES: To determine the antiviral activity of crude breast milk and its purified mucins MUC1 and MUC4 against HIV-1 in patients who were HIV positive compared to those who were not. METHODS: Twenty-one human milk samples were taken from both groups. Breast milk mucins were purified by density-gradient ultracentrifugation in caesium chloride and analyzed by SDS-PAGE, Western blotting and amino acid content. The inhibition of the virus by crude milk and purified mucin was assayed by an in vitro HIV-1 p24 assay. RESULTS: SDS-PAGE for purified mucin showed several high-molecular-weight bands for the HIV-negative group and prominently stained single bands on the stacking gel with faintly periodic acid Schiff-positive glycoprotein bands observed in some cases in the running gel for the HIV-positive mucins. Western blot analysis identified the mucins in both groups to be MUC1 and MUC4. Both mucins showed more intensity on Western blotting for the HIV-positive group. There was no difference in the content of serine, threonine and proline of purified mucins for both groups. HIV-1 was not inhibited by crude breast milk from normal (13/14 samples) and infected individuals (19/19 samples). Fifteen of 20 and 16/18 samples of purified mucin from the uninfected and HIV-positive groups, respectively, inhibited the virus. CONCLUSIONS: Crude breast milk does not inhibit HIV-1, whilst purified mucins do in an in vitro assay.

Novel electrochemical aptamer biosensor based on an enzyme-gold nanoparticle dual label for the ultrasensitive detection of epithelial tumour marker MUC1.

A novel platform based on a hairpin oligonucleotide (HO) switch, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), and enzyme signal amplification for the ultrasensitive detection of mucin 1 protein (MUC1) was developed in this assay. This HO aptamers and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) were immobilised on the AuNPs to yield HO-AuNP-HRP conjugates. AuNPs were used as labels and bridges between the HO and HRP. HRP was also used as label for catalysing the oxidation of o-phenylenediamine by H2O2. The reaction product was 2,3-diaminophenazine (DAP), which was reduced and could be detected at surface of modified electrode. The reduction signal of DAP was used as a probe for the sensitive detection. After the recognition between oligonucleotide and MUC1, biotin was exposed. Biotin, along with the conjugate, was captured by streptavidin onto the surface of modified electrode. Therefore, the detection of target MUC1 which was a membrane-associated glycoprotein of the mucin family could be sensitively transduced via detection of the electrochemical reduction signal of DAP. Compared to other aptasensors, this biosensor has a good linear correlation ranges from 8.8 nM to 353.3 nM and a lower detection limit of 2.2 nM for MUC1. The proposed method provided a new electrochemical approach for the detection of MUC1.

The use of a novel MUC1 antibody to identify cancer stem cells and circulating MUC1 in mice and patients with pancreatic cancer.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: MUC1 is over-expressed and aberrantly glycosylated in >60% of human pancreatic cancer (PC). Development of novel approaches for detection and/or targeting of MUC1 are critically needed and should be able to detect MUC1 on PC cells (including cancer stem cells) and in serum. METHODS: The sensitivity and specificity of the anti-MUC1 antibody, TAB 004, was determined. CSCs were assessed for MUC1 expression using TAB 004-FITC on in vitro PC cell lines, and on lineage(-) cells from in vivo tumors and human samples. Serum was assessed for shed MUC1 via the TAB 004 EIA. RESULTS: In vitro and in vivo, TAB 004 detected MUC1 on >95% of CSCs. Approximately, 80% of CSCs in patients displayed MUC1 expression as detected by TAB 004. Shed MUC1 was detected serum in mice with HPAF-II (MUC1(high) ) but not BxPC3 tumors (MUC1(low)). The TAB 004 EIA was able to accurately detect stage progression in PC patients. CONCLUSIONS: The TAB 004 antibody may be explored as a therapeutic targeting agent for CSCs in PC. The TAB 004 EIA detected circulating MUC1 in a stage-dependent manner in patients with PC and thus may be explored as a PC stage diagnostic biomarker.

A "signal-on" electrochemical aptasensor for simultaneous detection of two tumor markers.

In this paper, we report a "signal-on" electrochemical aptasensor for simultaneous determination of two tumor markers MUC1 and VEGF(165), by using a ferrocene-labeled aptamer-complementary DNA (cDNA) as probe. Since the cDNA immobilized on an electrode surface can hybridize with both MUC1 aptamer and VEGF(165) aptamer to form a long double strand with ferrocene far away from the electrode surface, the probe cannot give electrochemical signal. Nevertheless, the presence of the two tumor markers will inhibit the hybridization of cDNA with the aptamers, thus the distance between ferrocene and the electrode is changed, and a "signal-on" electrochemical method to detect two tumor markers is developed. Experimental results show that the electrochemical signal increases with the addition of either tumor markers, but the biggest electrochemical signal can only be obtained when both tumor markers are present. Therefore, the proposed electrochemical aptasensor can not only detect the two markers but also distinguish their co-existence. It may also display high selectivity and sensitivity towards the detection of the tumor markers, so it might have potential clinical application in the future.

Purification of clinical-grade recombinant HSP65-MUCI fusion protein.

HSP65-MUCI is a fusion protein between BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guerin)-derived HSP65 (heat-shock protein 65) and human MUCI (mucin I) VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats)-domain peptides that has shown antitumour efficacy. China's Food and Drug Administration has recently approved a Phase I clinical trial using HSP65-MUCI for the treatment of MUCI-positive breast cancer. In order to produce sufficient quantities of clinical-grade HSP65-MUCI, we established a pilot-scale purification scheme comprising two steps of column chromatography: HIC (hydrophobic-interaction chromatography) and IEX (ion-exchange chromatography). The pH values of the buffers used in homogenization and HIC were adjusted to pH 9.0 to maintain protein stability and prevent protein degradation. Using this manufacturing process, we obtained clinical-grade HSP65-MUCI with a yield of 400 mg per 70 g of wet cell pellet and >96% purity.

Expression of MUC1 mucin in full-term pregnancy human placenta.

PURPOSE: MUC1 mucin is a component of glycocalyx in human endometrium and may play an important role in generation of "receptive window" at embryo implantation. Considering that MUC1 expression in human placenta is changed during pregnancy, and that MUC1 structure and function are not completely known in this organ, we have undertaken isolation of this mucin and detection of glycan epitopes, since they are crucial for its properties. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Samples of human placenta were homogenized and MUC1 was extracted in different conditions with the use of ionic or non-ionic detergents. Identification of this glycoprotein was performed by Western and lectin blotting, after its purification on Sepharose 4B column. RESULTS: The best extraction of MUC1 glycoprotein was achieved with a non-ionic detergent, Triton X-100. Reactions with anti-MUC1 antibody showed a few glycoforms with molecular weights between 116 and 205 kDa, with the most visible glycoform approximating 205 kDa. Reactions with lectins enabled detection of carbohydrate antigens, such as T and Tn with sialic acid linked by alpha2, 3 and to a lesser extent by alpha2, 6 bond. CONCLUSION: MUC1 mucin is present in several glycoforms on the maternal side of human placenta after term delivery. They contain short glycan structures, similar to some tumor carbohydrate antigens.

Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 activity by purified human breast milk mucin (MUC1) in an inhibition assay.

It has been reported that breast-feeding is responsible for approximately 40% of the HIV transmissions from HIV-positive mothers to children. Human breast milk, however, is known to contain numerous biologically active components which protect breast-fed infants against bacteria, viruses, and toxins. The purpose of this study was to purify and characterize breast milk mucin and to determine its anti-HIV-1 activity in an HIV inhibition assay. Sepharose CL-4B column chromatography and caesium chloride isopycnic density gradient purification were used to isolate and purify the mucin. Following Western blotting and amino acid analysis, an HIV-1 inhibition assay was carried out to determine the anti-HIV-1 activity of crude breast milk and purified milk mucin (MUC1) by incubating them with HIV-1 prior to infection of the human T lymphoblastoid cell line (CEM SS cells). SDS-PAGE analysis of the mucin, together with its amino acid composition and Western blotting, suggested that this purified mucin from human breast milk was MUC1. The HIV inhibition assay revealed that while the purified milk mucin (MUC1) inhibited the HIV-1 activity by approximately 97%, there was no inhibition of the HIV-1 activity by crude breast milk. Although the reason for this is not clear, it is likely that because the MUC1 in crude milk is enclosed by fat globules, there may not be any physical contact between the mucin and the virus in the crude breast milk. Thus, there is a need to free the mucin from the fat globules for it to be effective against the virus.