Larval morphology of the avian parasitic genus Passeromyia: playing hide and seek with a parastomal bar.

The enigmatic larvae of the Old World genus Passeromyia Rodhain & Villeneuve, 1915 (Diptera: Muscidae) inhabit the nests of birds as saprophages or as haematophagous agents of myiasis among nestlings. Using light microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, we provide the first morphological descriptions of the first, second and third instar of P. longicornis (Macquart, 1851) (Diptera: Muscidae), the first and third instar of P. indecora (Walker, 1858) (Diptera: Muscidae), and we revise the larval morphology of P. heterochaeta (Villenueve, 1915) (Diptera: Muscidae) and P. steini Pont, 1970 (Diptera: Muscidae). We provide a key to the third instar of examined species (excluding P. steini and P. veitchi Bezzi, 1928 (Diptera: Muscidae)). Examination of the cephaloskeleton revealed paired rod-like sclerites, named 'rami', between the lateral arms of the intermediate sclerite in the second and third instar larva. We reveal parastomal bars fused apically with the intermediate sclerite, the absence of which has so far been considered as apomorphic for second and third instar muscid larvae. Examination of additional material suggests that modified parastomal bars are not exclusive features of Passeromyia but occur widespread in the Muscidae, and rami may occur widespread in the Cyclorrhapha.

The Acquisition and Retention of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus by Blood-Feeding Insects Is Influenced by the Source of Virus, the Insect Body Part, and the Time since Feeding.

Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) is a poxvirus that causes severe systemic disease in cattle and is spread by mechanical arthropod-borne transmission. This study quantified the acquisition and retention of LSDV by four species of Diptera (Stomoxys calcitrans, Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus, and Culicoides nubeculosus) from cutaneous lesions, normal skin, and blood from a clinically affected animal. The acquisition and retention of LSDV by Ae. aegypti from an artificial membrane feeding system was also examined. Mathematical models of the data were generated to identify the parameters which influence insect acquisition and retention of LSDV. For all four insect species, the probability of acquiring LSDV was substantially greater when feeding on a lesion compared with feeding on normal skin or blood from a clinically affected animal. After feeding on a skin lesion LSDV was retained on the proboscis for a similar length of time (around 9 days) for all four species and for a shorter time in the rest of the body, ranging from 2.2 to 6.4 days. Acquisition and retention of LSDV by Ae. aegypti after feeding on an artificial membrane feeding system that contained a high titer of LSDV was comparable to feeding on a skin lesion on a clinically affected animal, supporting the use of this laboratory model as a replacement for some animal studies. This work reveals that the cutaneous lesions of LSD provide the high-titer source required for acquisition of the virus by insects, thereby enabling the mechanical vector-borne transmission. IMPORTANCE Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) is a high consequence pathogen of cattle that is rapidly expanding its geographical boundaries into new regions such as Europe and Asia. This expansion is promoted by the mechanical transmission of the virus via hematogenous arthropods. This study quantifies the acquisition and retention of LSDV by four species of blood-feeding insects and reveals that the cutaneous lesions of LSD provide the high titer virus source necessary for virus acquisition by the insects. An artificial membrane feeding system containing a high titer of LSDV was shown to be comparable to a skin lesion on a clinically affected animal when used as a virus source. This promotes the use of these laboratory-based systems as replacements for some animal studies. Overall, this work advances our understanding of the mechanical vector-borne transmission of LSDV and provides evidence to support the design of more effective disease control programmes.

Wing morphometrics of medically and forensically important muscid flies (Diptera: Muscidae).

Many muscid flies (Diptera: Muscidae) are well-known as medical, veterinary, and forensically significant insects, thus correct species identification is critically important before applying for fly control and determining a minimal postmortem interval (PMImin) in forensic investigations. Limited in taxonomic keys and taxonomists, as well as scanty in advanced molecular laboratories lead to difficulty in identification of muscids. To date, a landmark-based geometric morphometric analysis of wings has proven to be a promising alternative technique for identifying many insect species. Herein, we assessed wing morphometric analysis for identification of six medically and forensically important muscids, namely Musca domestica Linnaeus, Musca pattoni Austen, Musca ventrosa Wiedemann, Hydrotaea chalcogaster (Wiedemann), Hydrotaea spinigera Stein, and Dichaetomyia quadrata (Wiedemann). A total of 302 right wing images were digitized based on 15 homologous landmarks and wing shape variation among genera and species was analyzed using canonical variate analysis, whereas sexual shape dimorphism of M. domestica, M. ventrosa, and D. quadrata was analyzed using discriminant function analysis. The cross-validation revealed a relatively high percentage of correct classification in most species, ranging from 86.4% to 100%, except for M. pattoni, being 67.5%. Misidentifications were mainly due to cross-pairings of the genus Musca; M. domestica VS M. pattoni VS M. ventrosa. The accuracy of classification using cross-validation test demonstrated that wing shape can be used to evaluate muscid flies at the genus- and species-level, and separate sexes of the three species analyzed, with a high reliability. This study sheds light on genus, species, and sex discrimination of six muscid species that have been approached using wing morphometric analysis.

Macaronesian Muscidae (Diptera). II. The genus emLimnophora/em Robineau-Desvoidy with description of a new Canarian endemic species.

The Macaronesian species of the muscid genus Limnophora are reviewed with special emphasis on the fauna of the western Canary Islands. The genus is represented by 14 species in the Macaronesian archipelagos, with 10 species in the Canary Islands, 4 species in the Cape Verde Islands, and 3 species in Madeira. Limnophora obsignatula sp. nov. is endemic to the western Canary Islands, where it replaces the widespread continental L. obsignata (Rondani). It is further shown that L. paneliusi Emden, a species so far considered endemic to the Cape Verde Islands, is widespread in the Canary Islands. Two species, L. obsignata (Rondani) and L. tigrina Am Stein, are removed from the list of Canarian Muscidae as based on misidentifications of other species with a mesonotal "Anthomyia-pattern". Limnophora (Calliophrys) riparia capoverdica Emden, a taxon described from the Cape Verde Islands, is synonymized with L. riparia (Fallén), syn. nov. Distribution data and illustrated diagnoses are given for each species. The species account is finalized with an identification key to males and females. An assessment of the ovipositor as a characters source in phylogeny and species recognition is made for 12 species of Limnophora. Finally, it is pointed out that several species are acutely threatened due to habitat disturbance.

Review of Synthesiomyia nudiseta (Diptera: Muscidae) as a useful tool in forensic entomology.

Synthesiomyia nudiseta (van der Wulp, 1883) is a synanthropic muscid found in tropical and subtropical zones around the world. The larvae of this species are a secondary agent of myiasis with necrophagous habits and play an important role in forensic entomology, as they are used as an indicator of post-mortem interval. Adults can be considered vectors of etiological agents such as Escherichia coli and Shigella dysenteriae. Due to its ability to adapt to different environmental conditions, its high dispersal capacity (shown by its introduction to Europe), its predatory habits in the last larval stage and the difficulty of identifying it, a very important goal is to update our knowledge about this species. Therefore, the main objective of this paper is to review the identification, geographical distribution and biology of this species in order to provide better support to investigations involving this fly.

First description of the immature stages of Fannia sabroskyi Seago, 1954 (Insecta, Diptera, Fanniidae).

Egg, larvae and the puparium of Fannia sabroskyi Seago, 1954 (Diptera, Fanniidae) are described and illustrated for the first time. The following structures have been documented: pseudocephalon, antennal complex, maxillary palpus, facial mask, anterior spiracle, cephaloskeleton structures, thoracic and abdominal processes, anal division, and posterior spiracle. Due to its necrophagous habit, this species may be of potential forensic importance for estimating the postmortem interval in criminal investigations. The information presented herein may be useful to distinguish the immature forms of Fannia species and to supplement the database for identification of Neotropical species of Fanniidae. In addition, it is also important for evolutionary and phylogenetic studies.

Flies Exploit Predictable Perspectives and Backgrounds to Enhance Iridescent Signal Salience and Mating Success.

Communication requires both the encoding of information and its effective transmission, but little is known about display traits that primarily serve to enhance efficacy. Here we examined the visual courtships of Lispe cana, a cursorial fly that lives and mates in heterogeneous foreshores, and tested the prediction that males should seek to enhance signal salience and consequent fitness through the flexible choice of display locations. We show that courting males access the field of view of females by straddling them and holding their wings closed before moving ahead to present their structurally colored faces in ritualized dances. Males preferentially present these UV-white signals against darker backgrounds and the magnitude of contrast predicts female attention, which in turn predicts mating success. Our results demonstrate a striking interplay between the physical and attentional manipulation of receivers and reveal novel routes to the enhancement of signal efficacy in noisy environments.

Ethiopian muscids (Diptera, Muscidae) egg-carriers of Stylogaster Macquart (Diptera, Conopidae).

We here report for the first time on the presence of three species of the conopid genus Stylogaster Macquart (Diptera, Conopidae) in Ethiopia, viz. S. nitens Brunetti, S. westwoodi Smith and Stylogaster sp.. We further screened 908 muscid flies (Diptera, Muscidae) for the presence of impaled eggs of Stylogaster and recorded eggs on 89 individuals (9.8%). Eggs were impaled on eight species, viz. Limnophora translucida Stein, Musca lusoria Wiedemann, Musca splendens Pont, Neomyia chrysopyga (Emden), Pseudohelina nigritarsis (Jaennicke), Stomoxys omega Newstead, Stomoxys taeniatus Bigot and Stomoxys varipes (Bezzi). The maximum number of eggs found on a single muscid was six. We illustrated the dissected eggs. L. translucida, M. lusoria, M. splendens, N. chrysopyga and S. varipes are reported as new muscid hosts species for Stylogaster.

First record of Fanniidae (Diptera) from New Caledonia.

The family Fanniidae is newly recorded to New Caledonia. Adult male and female of Fannia capitalis Pont are illustrated as well as the peculiar male terminalia, the female ovipositor, and the egg. Male phallic process and egg are described for the first time.

Effect of larval density and substrate quality on the wing geometry of Stomoxys calcitrans L. (Diptera: Muscidae).

BACKGROUND: In insects, oviposition decisions may lead to egg deposition in substrates with different larval density and nutritional levels. Individuals developing in such substrates may present plasticity in their phenotype. Here, we investigated the effect of two factors related to oviposition decisions, namely larval density and substrate quality, on the wing size and wing shape of the stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans L. (Diptera: Muscidae). METHODS: We reared S. calcitrans larvae at different densities (5, 15 and 25) and on different substrates (camel, cow, donkey and sheep dung). For each fly that emerged, we recorded body weight, and detached, slide-mounted and photographed the right wing. Next, we collected 15 landmarks on each photographed wing, and applied geometric morphometric analysis to assess variation in wing size and wing shape of S. calcitrans across the different larval densities and substrate types. RESULTS: We observed that wing size and wing shape of S. calcitrans were affected by larval density and the nature of the developmental substrate. Flies reared in a group of 5 had larger wing centroid size, wing length, wing width, wing area and wing loading compared with those reared in a group of 25. Also, flies developed in donkey and sheep dung had larger wing centroid size, wing length, wing width, wing area and wing loading in comparison with those grown in camel and cow dung. Canonical variate analysis followed by discriminant analysis revealed significant wing shape variation in S. calcitrans across the different densities and substrates. Wing size had a significant but weak positive effect on wing shape. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the high sensitivity of S. calcitrans wings to variation in larval density and developmental substrate, and that use of landmark-based geometric morphometric analysis could improve our understanding of how flies of veterinary importance respond to environmental variability.

A review and illustrated description of Musca crassirostris, one of the most neglected haematophagous livestock flies.

Tabanids, stomoxyine flies, hippoboscids and tsetse flies are the most well-known brachyceran biting flies of livestock. Only a few other higher Diptera have developed the unique mouthparts required for blood feeding. These neglected blood feeders can also have direct effects on hosts through blood loss, and are likely to contribute to the transmission of pathogens. Musca crassirostris (Diptera: Muscidae) is one of the most abundant of the muscid flies with this haematophagous lifestyle; it is widespread in the Palaearctic, Afrotropical and Oriental regions. The present study reviews and summarizes the biology and morphology of this species, and its potential for impact on animals and humans. The study also provides a fully illustrated description of the fly to facilitate its identification, and reviews information on abundance, with a focus on recent trapping surveys in Thailand. When sampled using traps designed for other biting flies, M. crassirostris appears to be four and 45 times more abundant than stomoxyines and tabanids, respectively. High numbers of M. crassirostris in the vicinity of livestock have also been associated with outbreaks of disease, such as that of a fatal plague in bovine farms in Egypt. This calls for a reconsideration of its potential impacts on livestock economics and health, and thus the development of suitable control methods.

Characterization and Identification of Puparia of Hydrotaea Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830 (Diptera: Muscidae) From Forensic and Archaeological Contexts.

Flies and beetles are the main components of the entomofauna colonizing a body after death. Following the recognition of constant and predictable colonization patterns and the knowledge about the dependence of the insect development to temperature, a new discipline, forensic entomology, has provided information useful to reconstruct criminal events. Funerary archaeoentomology has also applied the same rationale in archaeological contexts. Puparia represent a large fraction of the insect remains that can be found associated with a cadaver, especially when the body is mummified or in the advanced stages of decomposition. Puparium identification is still a problematic topic due to the lack of identification keys and, in several cases, a lack of diagnostic feature descriptions. Here, we focus the attention on some Hydrotaea Robineau-Desvoidy (Diptera, Muscidae) puparia from forensic and archaeological contexts. Puparia of Hydrotaea capensis (Wiedemann), Hydrotaea ignava (Harris), Hydrotaea aenescens (Wiedemann), Hydrotaea similis Meade, Hydrotaea pilipes Stein, and Hydrotaea dentipes (Fabricius) are here detailed and illustrated. Posterior spiracles, anal plate, and intersegmental spines have been considered as good diagnostic characters for the identification of these puparia.

Typology and distribution of antennal sensory organs of adults Haematobia irritans of the Midwest Region of Brazil / Tipologia e distribuição de órgãos sensilares de Haematobia irritans adultas do Centro-Oeste do Brasil

Considering the great economic and sanitarian importance of Haematobia irritans − the development of resistance of this species to the main chemical insecticides used in its control, in several other localities of the world; as well as that different strains of the same species frequently present different types and distribution patterns −, the present aim study was to investigate the typology and distribution of different types of sensillae of H. irritans adults, from populations of this fly present in Brazilian Midwest, with emphasis on olfactory sensillae. This study provides new data on the typology and sensillary distribution of antennal sensilla of this fly. In the antennal segments were found non-innervated spinules and ten subtypes of sensilla: long bristles sensillum, long basiconic sensillum, blunt coeloconic sensillum, clavate coeloconic sensilla − single-tip and double-tip subtypes −, grooved coeloconic sensillum, long grooved coeloconic sensillum, trichoid sensillum, coeloconic sensillum, and smaller basiconic sensillum. A slight sexual dimorphism was observed in the antennal sensillae of H. irritans. These results provide a morphological basis for future investigations on olfactory-mediated behavior of this species, and could assist future studies for the development of alternative measures to the monitoring and control of this fly populations, with less environmental impact.(AU)

Considerando a grande importância econômica e sanitária de Haematobia irritans, o desenvolvimento de resistência desta espécie aos principais inseticidas químicos utilizados em seu controle, em diversas outras localidades do mundo, bem como que diferentes cepas de uma mesma espécie frequentemente apresentam diferentes tipos e padrões de distribuição sensilares, objetivou-se no presente trabalho investigar a tipologia e a distribuição dos diferentes tipos e subtipos sensilares de adulttos de H. irritans, oriunda de populações desta mosca presentes no centro-oeste brasileiro, com ênfase nas sensilas olfatórias. Este estudo apresenta novos dados sobre a tipologia e distribuição sensilar da antenna desta mosca. Em seus segmentos antenais foram observados pilosidades não enervadas e dez subtipos de sensilas, sendo: long bristles sensillum, long basiconic sensillum, blunt coeloconic sensillum, clavate coeloconic sensilla - single-tip and double-tip subtypes -, grooved coeloconic sensillum, long grooved coeloconic sensillum, trichoid sensillum, coeloconic sensillum, e smaller basiconic sensillum. Leve dimorfismo sexual foi observado em relação às sensilas antenais de H. irritans. Estes resultados fornecem uma base morfológica para futuras investigações sobre o comportamento mediado pelo olfato desta espécie, e poderão fomentar futuros estudos para desenvolvimento de medidas alternativas de monitoramento e controle de populações dessa mosca, com menor impacto.(AU)

Afrotropical Limnophora Robineau-Desvoidy (Diptera, Muscidae) with the description of four new species.

All the Afrotopical Limnophora Robineau-Desvoidy (Diptera, Muscidae) deposited in the Natural History Museum, London (United Kingdom) were analyzed, including the types of the species described by Emden, mainly from the British Museum (Natural History) Ruwenzori Expedition of 1934-1935. Diagnoses and notes on all the species recorded from the Afrotropical region are given, together with illustrations of the male terminalia (when sufficient material was available), some of which are given for the first time. We made the following taxonomic changes: Limnophora terrestris Paterson, 1955 is a junior synonym of Limnophora translucida Stein, 1913 (syn. nov.); Limnophora aculeipes latilamellata Malloch, 1921 has its status revised and is elevated to species rank (stat. rev.) with Limnophora aculeipes eurymetopa Emden, 1951 proposed as a junior synonym (syn. nov.); L. majuscula kinangopana Emden, 1951 is also raised to species rank (stat. nov.). Four new species are described: Limnophora alta sp. nov.; Limnophora nuda sp. nov.; Limnophora numerosa sp. nov. and Limnophora sinuosa sp. nov., with illustrations of male terminalia.

Landmark and outline-based geometric morphometrics analysis of three Stomoxys flies (Diptera: Muscidae).

Adult flies of the genus Stomoxys Geoffroy, 1762 (Diptera: Muscidae), especially S. pullus Austen, 1909, S. uruma Shinonaga et Kano, 1966 and S. indicus Picard, 1908, are morphologically similar and sometimes difficult to distinguish when using external morphological characteristics. These species may act as vectors and/or potential vectors of many pathogens (virus, bacteria and protozoa). Their correct identification is important to target the vectors involved in the transmission of the pathogens and also helps in the fly control program.The aim of the present study was to distinguish three species which are difficult to separate using traditional diagnostic characters for species of Stomoxys such as colour patterns and body proportions. Modern morphometrics, both landmark and outline-based, was used to access wing geometry of S. pullus, S. uruma and S. indicus. A total of 198 and 190 wing pictures were analysed for landmark- and outline-based approaches, respectively. Wing shape was able to separate species and sexes of the three Stomoxys flies with highly significant difference of Mahalanobis distances. The cross-validated classification scores ranged from 76% to 100% for landmark and 77% to 96% for outline-based morphometrics. The geometry of wing features appears to be a very useful, low-cost tool to distinguish among the vectors S. pullus, S. uruma and S. indicus.

Taxonomy of Morellia Robineau-Desvoidy (Diptera: Muscidae): revision of the subgenera Morellia s. str. and Parapyrellia Townsend.

The subgenera Morellia Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830 and Parapyrellia Townsend, 1915 of Morellia (Diptera, Muscidae) are revised. Forty-two species of the subgenus Morellia (out of 50) and seven of the subgenus Parapyrellia (all species) are redescribed and illustrated, and 48 species are keyed (41 spp. of Morellia and 7 spp. of Parapyrellia). Morellia (M.) cashmirana van Emden, 1965, originally described as a subspecies of M. (M.) hortorum (Fallén, 1817), is raised to species rank, stat. nov. Four species are transferred from the subgenus Morellia to the subgenus Parapyrellia (subgen. comb. nov.): M. dendropanacis Pamplona & Couri, 1995; M. lopesae Pamplona, 1986; M. roppai Pamplona, 1986 and M. semimarginata (Stein, 1918).

Taxonomic review of the species of Helina R.-D. (Diptera: Muscidae) from Andean-Patagonian forests.

Helina Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830 is the second genus of Muscidae in terms of richness. This genus includes several species collected at high altitudes and high latitudes, and is poorly studied in the Neotropical region. Only 12 species of Helina have been recorded in the southern limit of South America in the Andean-Patagonian forests. In the present work, we studied all the species known from the Andean-Patagonian forests, with the exception of H. viola Malloch, 1934, present three new species, H. araucana sp. nov., H. dorada sp. nov., and H. ouina sp. nov., and provide the first description of the females of H. australis Carvalho & Pont, 1993 and H. rufoapicata Malloch, 1934. We also propose four new synonymies: H. nigrimana basilaris (Carvalho & Pont, 1993) and H. nigrimana grisea (Malloch, 1934) as new junior synonyms of H. nigrimana (Macquart, 1851); and H. fulvocalyptrata Malloch, 1934 and H. simplex Malloch, 1934 as new junior synonyms of H. chilensis Malloch, 1934. Finally, we provide a generic diagnosis and a new key for the Helina species of the Andean-Patagonian forests, as well as notes on the biology and distribution maps of each specimen, and discuss a preliminary contruction of groups of species.

Taxonomic study of the genus Cephalispa Malloch of Japan (Diptera: Muscidae).

Japanese species of the genus Cephalispa Malloch, 1935 are revised. Cephalispa kudoi sp. nov., C. okinawaensis sp. nov. and C. triquetra sp. nov. are described. Lispocephala xanthogaster (Shinonaga, 2003) is transferred to the genus. A key to Japanese species is provided.

Fanniidae (Insecta, Diptera) from Beijing, China, with key and description of one new species.

The Family Fanniidae in Beijing, China, consisting of seventeen species, is reviewed. Seven species represent new records from this region, including two species that are newly recorded from mainland China. One new species (Fannia papei sp. nov.) collected from the mountainous regions of Beijing is described. Three species (F. carbonaria, F. dupla and F. hirticeps) are re-described to provide updated characters and extensive variation information, and a key to identify the known males from Beijing is also given.

Review of the Lispe caesia-group (Diptera: Muscidae) from Palaearctic and adjacent regions, with redescriptions and one new synonymy.

Species of Lispe caesia-group from Palaearctic and adjacent regions are reviewed. Diagnostic characters of this group are updated. One new synonymy is established: L. frontalis Zielke, 1972, syn. nov. for L. leucocephala Loew, 1856. Key to males of ten species (with two subspecies) from Palaearctic, Oriental and Ethiopian regions is given. Nine species (with two subspecies) are photographed. Six species and one subspecies are redescribed. More detailed ultrastructural or external characters for male swollen hind tarsi and the wing interference patterns are also provided.