Two cases of microvillus inclusion disease caused by MYO5B deficiency with prenatal abnormalities.

BACKGROUNDS: Microvillus inclusion disease (MVID) characterizes as intractable life-threatening watery diarrhea malnutrition after birth. MATERIALS & METHODS: Here we describe two patients with prenatal ultrasound findings of bowel dilation or increased amniotic fluid volume presented intractable diarrhea after birth. Exome sequencing and Intestinal biopsy were performed for the patients and their parents to reveal the underlying causes. The mutations were verified by Sanger sequencing and quantitative polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: Exome sequencing revealed that both of the patients carrying MYO5B compound heterozygote mutations that were inherited from their parents. CONCLUSION: Here we describe two cases with MVID caused by MYO5B deficiency, which was the most common caused with prenatal ultrasound findings of bowel dilation and increased amniotic fluid volume. Due to the lack of effective curative therapies, early diagnosis even in prenatal of MVID can provide parents with better genetic counseling on the fetal prognosis.

Cell differentiation is disrupted by MYO5B loss through Wnt/Notch imbalance.

Functional loss of myosin Vb (MYO5B) induces a variety of deficits in intestinal epithelial cell function and causes a congenital diarrheal disorder, microvillus inclusion disease (MVID). The impact of MYO5B loss on differentiated cell lineage choice has not been investigated. We quantified the populations of differentiated epithelial cells in tamoxifen-induced, epithelial cell-specific MYO5B-knockout (VilCreERT2 Myo5bfl/fl) mice utilizing digital image analysis. Consistent with our RNA-sequencing data, MYO5B loss induced a reduction in tuft cells in vivo and in organoid cultures. Paneth cells were significantly increased by MYO5B deficiency along with expansion of the progenitor cell zone. We further investigated the effect of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) signaling on epithelial cell differentiation. Intraperitoneal LPA significantly increased tuft cell populations in both control and MYO5B-knockout mice. Transcripts for Wnt ligands were significantly downregulated by MYO5B loss in intestinal epithelial cells, whereas Notch signaling molecules were unchanged. Additionally, treatment with the Notch inhibitor dibenzazepine (DBZ) restored the populations of secretory cells, suggesting that the Notch pathway is maintained in MYO5B-deficient intestine. MYO5B loss likely impairs progenitor cell differentiation in the small intestine in vivo and in vitro, partially mediated by Wnt/Notch imbalance. Notch inhibition and/or LPA treatment may represent an effective therapeutic approach for treatment of MVID.

Recruitment of Polarity Complexes and Tight Junction Proteins to the Site of Apical Bulk Endocytosis.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The molecular motor, Myosin Vb (MYO5B), is well documented for its role in trafficking cargo to the apical membrane of epithelial cells. Despite its involvement in regulating apical proteins, the role of MYO5B in cell polarity is less clear. Inactivating mutations in MYO5B result in microvillus inclusion disease (MVID), a disorder characterized by loss of key apical transporters and the presence of intracellular inclusions in enterocytes. We previously identified that inclusions in Myo5b knockout (KO) mice form from invagination of the apical brush border via apical bulk endocytosis. Herein, we sought to elucidate the role of polarity complexes and tight junction proteins during the formation of inclusions. METHODS: Intestinal tissue from neonatal control and Myo5b KO littermates was analyzed by immunofluorescence to determine the localization of polarity complexes and tight junction proteins. RESULTS: Proteins that make up the apical polarity complexes-Crumbs3 and Pars complexes-were associated with inclusions in Myo5b KO mice. In addition, tight junction proteins were observed to be concentrated over inclusions that were present at the apical membrane of Myo5b-deficient enterocytes in vivo and in vitro. Our mouse findings are complemented by immunostaining in a large animal swine model of MVID genetically engineered to express a human MVID-associated mutation that shows an accumulation of Claudin-2 over forming inclusions. The findings from our swine model of MVID suggest that a similar mechanism of tight junction accumulation occurs in patients with MVID. CONCLUSIONS: These data show that apical bulk endocytosis involves the altered localization of apical polarity proteins and tight junction proteins after loss of Myo5b.

Lysophosphatidic Acid Increases Maturation of Brush Borders and SGLT1 Activity in MYO5B-deficient Mice, a Model of Microvillus Inclusion Disease.

BACKGROUND & AIM: Myosin VB (MYO5B) is an essential trafficking protein for membrane recycling in gastrointestinal epithelial cells. The inactivating mutations of MYO5B cause the congenital diarrheal disease, microvillus inclusion disease (MVID). MYO5B deficiency in mice causes mislocalization of SGLT1 and NHE3, but retained apical function of CFTR, resulting in malabsorption and secretory diarrhea. Activation of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) receptors can improve diarrhea, but the effect of LPA on MVID symptoms is unclear. We investigated whether LPA administration can reduce the epithelial deficits in MYO5B-knockout mice. METHODS: Studies were conducted with tamoxifen-induced, intestine-specific knockout of MYO5B (VilCreERT2;Myo5bflox/flox) and littermate controls. Mice were given LPA, an LPAR2 agonist (GRI977143), or vehicle for 4 days after a single injection of tamoxifen. Apical SGLT1 and CFTR activities were measured in Üssing chambers. Intestinal tissues were collected, and localization of membrane transporters was evaluated by immunofluorescence analysis in tissue sections and enteroids. RNA sequencing and enrichment analysis were performed with isolated jejunal epithelial cells. RESULTS: Daily administration of LPA reduced villus blunting, frequency of multivesicular bodies, and levels of cathepsins in intestinal tissues of MYO5B-knockout mice compared with vehicle administration. LPA partially restored the brush border height and the localization of SGLT1 and NHE3 in small intestine of MYO5B-knockout mice and enteroids. The SGLT1-dependent short-circuit current was increased and abnormal CFTR activities were decreased in jejunum from MYO5B-knockout mice given LPA compared with vehicle. CONCLUSIONS: LPA may regulate a MYO5B-independent trafficking mechanism and brush border maturation, and therefore be developed for treatment of MVID.

Loss of myosin Vb promotes apical bulk endocytosis in neonatal enterocytes.

In patients with inactivating mutations in myosin Vb (Myo5B), enterocytes show large inclusions lined by microvilli. The origin of inclusions in small-intestinal enterocytes in microvillus inclusion disease is currently unclear. We postulated that inclusions in Myo5b KO mouse enterocytes form through invagination of the apical brush border membrane. 70-kD FITC-dextran added apically to Myo5b KO intestinal explants accumulated in intracellular inclusions. Live imaging of Myo5b KO-derived enteroids confirmed the formation of inclusions from the apical membrane. Treatment of intestinal explants and enteroids with Dyngo resulted in accumulation of inclusions at the apical membrane. Inclusions in Myo5b KO enterocytes contained VAMP4 and Pacsin 2 (Syndapin 2). Myo5b;Pacsin 2 double-KO mice showed a significant decrease in inclusion formation. Our results suggest that apical bulk endocytosis in Myo5b KO enterocytes resembles activity-dependent bulk endocytosis, the primary mechanism for synaptic vesicle uptake during intense neuronal stimulation. Thus, apical bulk endocytosis mediates the formation of inclusions in neonatal Myo5b KO enterocytes.

Progressive Familial Intrahepatic Cholestasis.

Genetic cholestasis has been dissected through genetic investigation. The major PFIC genes are now described. ATP8B1 encodes FIC1, ABCB11 encodes BSEP, ABCB4 encodes MDR3, TJP2 encodes TJP2, NR1H4 encodes FXR, and MYO5B encodes MYO5B. The full spectra of phenotypes associated with mutations in each gene are discussed, along with our understanding of the disease mechanisms. Differences in treatment response and targets for future treatment are emerging.

Myosin Vb mediated plasma membrane homeostasis regulates peridermal cell size and maintains tissue homeostasis in the zebrafish epidermis.

The epidermis is a stratified epithelium, which forms a barrier to maintain the internal milieu in metazoans. Being the outermost tissue, growth of the epidermis has to be strictly coordinated with the growth of the embryo. The key parameters that determine tissue growth are cell number and cell size. So far, it has remained unclear how the size of epidermal cells is maintained and whether it contributes towards epidermal homeostasis. We have used genetic analysis in combination with cellular imaging to show that zebrafish goosepimples/myosin Vb regulates plasma membrane homeostasis and is involved in maintenance of cell size in the periderm, the outermost epidermal layer. The decrease in peridermal cell size in Myosin Vb deficient embryos is compensated by an increase in cell number whereas decrease in cell number results in the expansion of peridermal cells, which requires myosin Vb (myoVb) function. Inhibition of cell proliferation as well as cell size expansion results in increased lethality in larval stages suggesting that this two-way compensatory mechanism is essential for growing larvae. Our analyses unravel the importance of Myosin Vb dependent cell size regulation in epidermal homeostasis and demonstrate that the epidermis has the ability to maintain a dynamic balance between cell size and cell number.

Myosin Va plays a role in nitrergic smooth muscle relaxation in gastric fundus and corpora cavernosa of penis.

The intracellular motor protein myosin Va is involved in nitrergic neurotransmission possibly by trafficking of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) within the nerve terminals. In this study, we examined the role of myosin Va in the stomach and penis, proto-typical smooth muscle organs in which nitric oxide (NO) mediated relaxation is critical for function. We used confocal microscopy and co-immunoprecipitation of tissue from the gastric fundus (GF) and penile corpus cavernosum (CCP) to localize myosin Va with nNOS and demonstrate their molecular interaction. We utilized in vitro mechanical studies to test whether smooth muscle relaxations during nitrergic neuromuscular neurotransmission is altered in DBA (dilute, brown, non-agouti) mice which lack functional myosin Va. Myosin Va was localized in nNOS-positive nerve terminals and was co-immunoprecipitated with nNOS in both GF and CCP. In comparison to C57BL/6J wild type (WT) mice, electrical field stimulation (EFS) of precontracted smooth muscles of GF and CCP from DBA animals showed significant impairment of nitrergic relaxation. An NO donor, Sodium nitroprusside (SNP), caused comparable levels of relaxation in smooth muscles of WT and DBA mice. These normal postjunctional responses to SNP in DBA tissues suggest that impairment of smooth muscle relaxation resulted from inhibition of NO synthesis in prejunctional nerve terminals. Our results suggest that normal physiological processes of relaxation of gastric and cavernosal smooth muscles that facilitate food accommodation and penile erection, respectively, may be disrupted under conditions of myosin Va deficiency, resulting in complications like gastroparesis and erectile dysfunction.

Role for myosin-V motor proteins in the selective delivery of Kv channel isoforms to the membrane surface of cardiac myocytes.

RATIONALE: Kv1.5 (KCNA5) mediates the ultra-rapid delayed rectifier current that controls atrial action potential duration. Given its atrial-specific expression and alterations in human atrial fibrillation, Kv1.5 has emerged as a promising target for the treatment of atrial fibrillation. A necessary step in the development of novel agents that selectively modulate trafficking pathways is the identification of the cellular machinery controlling Kv1.5 surface density, of which little is yet known. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the role of the unconventional myosin-V (MYO5A and MYO5B) motors in determining the cell surface density of Kv1.5. METHODS AND RESULTS: Western blot analysis showed MYO5A and MYO5B expression in the heart, whereas disruption of endogenous motors selectively reduced IKur current in adult rat cardiomyocytes. Dominant negative constructs and short hairpin RNA silencing demonstrated a role for MYO5A and MYO5B in the surface trafficking of Kv1.5 and connexin-43 but not potassium voltage-gated channel, subfamily H (eag-related), member 2 (KCNH2). Live-cell imaging of Kv1.5-GFP and retrospective labeling of phalloidin demonstrated motility of Kv1.5 vesicles on actin tracts. MYO5A participated in anterograde trafficking, whereas MYO5B regulated postendocytic recycling. Overexpression of mutant motors revealed a selective role for Rab11 in coupling MYO5B to Kv1.5 recycling. CONCLUSIONS: MYO5A and MYO5B control functionally distinct steps in the surface trafficking of Kv1.5. These isoform-specific trafficking pathways determine Kv1.5-encoded IKur in myocytes to regulate repolarizing current and, consequently, cardiac excitability. Therapeutic strategies that manipulate Kv1.5 selective trafficking pathways may prove useful in the treatment of arrhythmias.

Absence of platelet phenotype in mice lacking the motor protein myosin Va.

BACKGROUND: The motor protein myosin Va plays an important role in the trafficking of intracellular vesicles. Mutation of the Myo5a gene causes Griscelli syndrome type 1 in humans and the dilute phenotype in mice, which are both characterised by pigment dilution and neurological defects as a result of impaired vesicle transport in melanocytes and neuroendocrine cells. The role of myosin Va in platelets is currently unknown. Rab27 has been shown to be associated with myosin Va cargo vesicles and is known to be important in platelet dense granule biogenesis and secretion, a crucial event in thrombus formation. Therefore, we hypothesised that myosin Va may regulate granule secretion or formation in platelets. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Platelet function was studied in vitro using a novel Myo5a gene deletion mouse model. Myo5a(-/-) platelets were devoid of myosin Va, as determined by immunoblotting, and exhibited normal expression of surface markers. We assessed dense granule, α-granule and lysosomal secretion, integrin α(IIb)ß(3) activation, Ca(2+) signalling, and spreading on fibrinogen in response to collagen-related peptide or the PAR4 agonist, AYPGKF in washed mouse platelets lacking myosin Va or wild-type platelets. Surprisingly, Myo5a(-/-) platelets showed no significant functional defects in these responses, or in the numbers of dense and α-granules expressed. CONCLUSION: Despite the importance of myosin Va in vesicle transport in other cells, our data demonstrate this motor protein has no non-redundant role in the secretion of dense and α-granules or other functional responses in platelets.

The role of myosin V in exocytosis and synaptic plasticity.

In neuroscience, myosin V motor proteins have attracted attention since they are highly expressed in brain, and absence of myosin Va in man leads to a severe neurological disease called Griscelli syndrome. While in some cells myosin V is described to act as a vesicle transport motor, an additional role in exocytosis has emerged recently. In neurons, myosin V has been linked to exocytosis of secretory vesicles and recycling endosomes. Through these functions, it is implied in regulating important brain functions including the release of neuropeptides by exocytosis of large dense-core vesicles and the insertion of neurotransmitter receptors into post-synaptic membranes. This review focuses on the role of myosin V in (i) axonal transport and stimulated exocytosis of large dense-core vesicles to regulate the secretion of neuroactive substances, (ii) tethering of the endoplasmic reticulum at cerebellar synapses to permit long-term depression, (iii) recycling of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate (AMPA) receptors at hippocampal synapses during long-term potentiation, and (iv) recycling of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. Myosin V is thus discussed as an important modulator of synaptic plasticity.

Myosin Va increases the efficiency of neurofilament transport by decreasing the duration of long-term pauses.

We investigated the axonal transport of neurofilaments in cultured neurons from two different strains of dilute lethal mice, which lack myosin Va. To analyze the motile behavior, we tracked the movement of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged neurofilaments through naturally occurring gaps in the axonal neurofilament array of cultured superior cervical ganglion neurons from DLS/LeJ dilute lethal mice. Compared with wild-type controls, we observed no statistically significant difference in velocity or frequency of movement. To analyze the pausing behavior, we used a fluorescence photoactivation pulse-escape technique to measure the rate of departure of PAGFP (photoactivatable GFP)-tagged neurofilaments from photoactivated axonal segments in cultured dorsal root ganglion neurons from DLS/LeJ and dl20J dilute lethal mice. Compared with wild-type controls, we observed a 48% increase in the mean time for neurofilaments to depart the activated regions in neurons from DLS/LeJ mice (p < 0.001) and a 169% increase in neurons from dl20J mice (p < 0.0001). These data indicate that neurofilaments pause for more prolonged periods in the absence of myosin Va. We hypothesize that myosin Va is a short-range motor for neurofilaments and that it can function to enhance the efficiency of neurofilament transport in axons by delivering neurofilaments to their microtubule tracks, thereby reducing the duration of prolonged off-track pauses.

Myosin Va controls oligodendrocyte morphogenesis and myelination.

A product of myosin Va mutations, Griscelli's syndrome type 1 (GS1) is characterized by several neurologic deficits including quadraparesis, mental retardation, and seizures. Although multiple studies have not clearly established a cause for the neurologic deficits linked with GS1, a few reports suggest that GS1 is associated with abnormal myelination, which could cause the neurologic deficits seen with GS1. In this report, we investigate whether myosin Va is critical to oligodendrocyte morphology and to myelination in vivo. We found that myosin Va-null mice exhibit significantly impaired myelination of the brain, optic nerve, and spinal cord. Oligodendrocytes express myosin Va and loss of myosin Va function resulted in significantly smaller lamellas and decreased process number, length, and branching of oligodendrocytes. Loss of myosin Va function also blocked distal localization of vesicle-associated membrane protein 2 (VAMP2), which is known to associate with myosin Va. When VAMP2 function was disrupted, oligodendrocytes exhibited similar morphologic deficits to what is seen with functional ablation of myosin Va. Our findings establish a role for both myosin Va and VAMP2 in oligodendrocyte function as it relates to myelination.

Normal lytic granule secretion by cytotoxic T lymphocytes deficient in BLOC-1, -2 and -3 and myosins Va, VIIa and XV.

Melanocytes and cells of the immune system share an unusual secretory mechanism which uses the lysosome as a regulated secretory organelle. Recently, a number of the proteins required for these 'secretory lysosomes' to undergo exocytosis have been identified. These include Rab27a, Lyst, Rab geranyl geranyl transferase and the adapter protein complex AP-3. Patients lacking any of these proteins are characterized by the rare combination of albinism and immunodeficiency, revealing roles for these proteins in both melanocyte and immune cell secretion. In order to ask how far the link between albinism and immunodeficiency extends we have examined cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) secretion from two BLOC-3-deficient patients and seven different mouse models of Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome, all of which display defects in pigmentation and platelet function. We find that CTL function is normal in HPS patients and pale-ear mice deficient in BLOC-3, pallid, muted and sandy mice deficient in BLOC-1, ruby-eye mice deficient in BLOC-2 and buff mice deficient in Vps33a. Similarly, the unconventional myosins, Va, VIIa and XV, which can act as effectors for Rab27a in some cell types, are not required in CTL. These results reveal differences in the protein machinery required for biogenesis and/or secretion of lysosome-related organelles in CTL and melanocytes.