A retrospective study of near-drowning victims admitted to the intensive care unit.

A retrospective study was conducted to evaluate the outcome of near-drowning patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) comparing seawater and freshwater drownings. A chart review was used to identify near-drowning patients admitted to ICU from 1 April 1989 to 1 May 1996 for biodata, physiological data and outcome. Seventeen near-drowning patients were admitted to ICU over a period of nearly 7 years. There were 3 deaths (17.6%) and 8 patients (47%) required cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Freshwater near-drowning occurred in 8 patients and saltwater near-drowning occurred in 9 patients. Nearly all (94%) the patients had a PaO2/FiO2 ratio < 300 mm Hg. Pulmonary oedema was present on the chest radiographs of all patients. Mechanical ventilation was required for 8 patients (47%), and nearly all (94%) received prophylactic antibiotics. None of the patients developed pneumonia. Serum electrolytes and haemoglobin concentration were not grossly abnormal although, those with saltwater near-drowning had a significantly higher level of haemoglobin, sodium and urea compared to those with freshwater near-drowning. Patients that survived to hospital discharge had full neurological recovery and stayed an average of 4.5 days. We concluded that near-drowning victims that survive to be admitted to ICU have significant oxygenation defect with nearly half requiring ventilatory support. Mortality is appreciable, but those that survive to hospital discharge had full neurological recovery.

Near-drowning and drowning classification: a proposal to stratify mortality based on the analysis of 1,831 cases.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To establish an updated classification for near-drowning and drowning (ND/D) according to severity, based on mortality rate of the subgroups. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We reviewed 41,279 cases of predominantly sea water rescues from the coastal area of Rio de Janeiro City, Brazil, from 1972 to 1991. Of this total, 2,304 cases (5.5%) were referred to the Near-Drowning Recuperation Center, and this group was used as the study database. At the accident site, the following clinical parameters were recorded: presence of breathing, arterial pulse, pulmonary auscultation, and arterial BP. Cases lacking records of clinical parameters were not studied. The ND/D were classified in six subgroups: grade 1--normal pulmonary auscultation with coughing; grade 2--abnormal pulmonary auscultation with rales in some pulmonary fields; grade 3--pulmonary auscultation of acute pulmonary edema without arterial hypotension; grade 4--pulmonary auscultation of acute pulmonary edema with arterial hypotension; grade 5--isolated respiratory arrest; and grade 6--cardiopulmonary arrest. RESULTS: From 2,304 cases in the database, 1,831 cases presented all clinical parameters recorded and were selected for classification. From these 1,831 cases, 1,189 (65%) were classified as grade 1 (mortality=0%); 338 (18.4%) as grade 2 (mortality=0.6%); 58 (3.2%) as grade 3 (mortality=5.2%); 36 (2%) as grade 4 (mortality=19.4%); 25 (1.4%) as grade 5 (mortality=44%); and 185 (10%) as grade 6 (mortality=93%) (p<0.000001). CONCLUSION: The study revealed that it is possible to establish six subgroups based on mortality rate by applying clinical criteria obtained from first-aid observations. These subgroups constitute the basis of a new classification.

Unwitnessed out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: is resuscitation worthwhile?

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To determine the epidemiology of unwitnessed out-of-hospital cardiac arrest and the factors associated with survival after resuscitation using the Utstein style data collection. METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort study in a 525,000-population city served by a single EMS system comprising a tiered response with physicians in the field. We studied consecutive unwitnessed out-of-hospital cardiac arrests that occurred between January 1, 1994, and December 31, 1995. We determined survival from cardiac arrest to discharge from hospital and the factors associated with survival. RESULTS: Of the 809 patients for whom resuscitation was considered, 205 (25.3%) had sustained unwitnessed arrests. Cardiac origin of arrest was verified in 52% of cases. The most common noncardiac causes of arrest were trauma, intoxication, near-drowning, and hanging. In 150 patients (73.2%) the presenting rhythm was asystole, in 28 (13.6%) it was pulseless electrical activity, and in 27 (13.2%) it was ventricular fibrillation. Resuscitation was attempted in 162 cases, 59 (36.4%) of whom demonstrated return of spontaneous circulation; 45 (27.8%) were hospitalized alive, and 8 (4.9%) were discharged. The survivors represented 6.7% of all out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survivors during the study period. Survival was most likely if patients presented with pulseless electrical activity; none of the patients with asystole of cardiac origin survived. Sex (P = .032), age (inverse relationship, P = .0004), scene of collapse (P = .042), and interval from call receipt to arrival of first responders (P = .004) were associated with survival. In a logistic-regression model, near-drowning remained an independent factor of survival (odds ratio, 15.5; 95% confidence interval, 1.2 to 200). A routine priority dispatching protocol differentiated cardiac arrest patients with survival potential from those who already had irreversible signs of death. CONCLUSION: This survey shows that survival after unwitnessed out-of-hospital cardiac arrest is unlikely with an initial response of basic life support alone. Withdrawal of resuscitation should be considered if an adult victim of unwitnessed cardiac arrest is found in asystole and the arrest is of obvious cardiac origin.

Outcome and acute care hospital costs after warm water near drowning in children.

OBJECTIVE: Predictive efforts using individual factors or scoring systems do not adequately identify all intact survivors, and therefore all drowning victims are aggressively resuscitated in most emergency departments. More reliable outcome prediction is needed to guide early treatment decisions. METHODS: The charts of 274 near drowning patients admitted to Loma Linda University Children's Hospital were retrospectively reviewed. Patient outcome was categorized into good (near normal function), and poor (vegetative or dead) categories. Discriminant analysis was used to identify combinations of variables most able to predict outcome and a clinical classification system was constructed. The acute care hospital costs for each group were compared. RESULTS: Discriminant analysis classification achieved 95% accuracy, predicting death in 6 intact survivors. No combination of variables could accurately separate all intact survivors from the vegetative and dead groups. The clinical classification method achieved 93% overall accuracy, predicting death in 5 intact survivors. Of patients predicted to have a poor outcome, 5 (6.3%) survived intact. Children may experience an unpredictable, prolonged vegetative state followed by full recovery. Vegetative patients are the most expensive to care for (consuming 53% of total costs) while intact survivors are the least expensive. The majority of costs were spent on patients with poor outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Individual outcome cannot be reliably predicted in the emergency department; therefore, aggressive resuscitation of near drowning victims should be performed. Decisions to subsequently withdraw life support should be made based on integration of likelihood of survival, high (but not absolute) certainty, and parental/societal issues. The vegetative patients are the most expensive to care for, while intact survivors are least expensive. Reduction of expenditures on patients likely to have vegetative or dead outcome would result in substantial savings, but loss of normal survivors.

Failure of aggressive therapy to alter outcome in pediatric near-drowning.

OBJECTIVES: To identify predictors of outcome in pediatric near-drowning victims, and to measure the effectiveness of therapy in pediatric near-drowning victims by assessing clinical outcome as a function of injury severity at presentation and therapeutic interventions during hospitalization. DESIGN: Retrospective chart review at a tertiary care university associated Children's Hospital from January 1976 to July 1992. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Initial intensive care unit (ICU) assessment included a Glasgow Coma Score (GCS) and a Pediatric Risk of Mortality (PRISM) Score. Outcome was assessed using a standard scoring system classifying functional abilities at hospital discharge as no functional disability, independent, partially independent, or total dependence on caregivers for function. Forty (49%) of 81 died. Of the survivors, 26 (63%) had no functional disability or were partially dependent at hospital discharge. Of the 47 (64%) patients with a GCS < or = 4 on presentation to the ICU, 37 (79%) died and 10 (21%) were dependent in all areas of function at discharge. Of the 40 (60%) patients who had a PRISM score < 20, 98% either died or were completely dependent at discharge. Of the 49 patients who were asystolic upon arrival to the emergency department (ED), 76% died, and the rest were completely dependent. Logistic regression showed that therapy had no independent effect on outcome when disease severity was accounted for. CONCLUSIONS: Severity of illness measured by GCS and PRISM score in the ICU can be useful in predicting outcome. For patients cared for in a Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, those with asystole on arrival at the ED had uniformly poor outcome. Currently available therapies do not alter outcome.

Prediction of childhood drowning and near-drowning morbidity and mortality.

OBJECTIVES: (a) Evaluate the presenting hemodynamic status and neurologic function of a series of warm water submersion injuries. (b) To ascertain the importance of the timing of the neurologic examination. (c) To identify risk factors that predict which patients will not return to presubmersion status. DESIGN: Retrospective review of all patients with a diagnosis of drowning/near-drowning responded to by the Children's Hospital pediatric transport service. Data were collected over a 24-month period regarding patient characteristics, submersion medium, rescue efforts, time out of sight, elapsed times to emergency department (ED) and pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) arrival, neurologic and hemodynamic status on arrival at the ED and PICU, reconstructed Conn-Modell category, and neurologic outcome. SETTING: EDs of the referring hospitals and PICU of the Children's Hospital of Orange County (CHOC), California. PATIENTS: Ninety-three submersion victims at an average age of 31 months. All patients were provided intensive care support. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Twenty-three percent (21/ 93) of patients died or survived vegetative. No patient arriving comatose and asystolic in the ED survived neurologically intact (n = 21, three patients expired in the ED). This group of patients had a mean duration of documented asystole = 41 minutes, range of 18 to 107 minutes, and time to ED arrival = 21 minutes. All patients with a detectable pulse and blood pressure (n = 72) on arrival to the ED, regardless of their neurologic status, recovered to their presubmersion status. Patients arriving comatose (decorticate, decerebrate, or flaccid posture) in the PICU (n = 18, mean arrival = 192 minutes) all died or were vegetative. All patients with non-coma (n = 72, Conn-Modell category A or B) on arrival to the PICU recovered normally. CONCLUSIONS: Hemodynamic status in the ED and neurologic status in the PICU are highly predictive of outcome. On arrival to the ED, the cardiovascular status is more predictive of abnormal outcome than neurologic status. Poor neurologic outcome appears inevitable for warm water submersion victims who are asystolic at ED arrival and remain comatose for more than 200 minutes.

Pulmonary oedema, pneumonia and mortality in submersion victims; a retrospective study in 125 patients.

OBJECTIVE: The identification of risk factors contributing to the development of pulmonary oedema, pneumonia and late mortality in submersion victims. DESIGN: A retrospective study of 125 submersion victims. SETTING: The medical intensive care unit in a university hospital. METHODS: Baseline examination on admission consisted of history, physical examination, arterial blood gas analysis and a chest radiograph. Patients were then classified into four groups: class I, baseline examination negative; class II, baseline examination positive, but mechanical ventilation not needed on admission; class III, mechanical ventilation required on admission; class IV, patients suffering from cardiopulmonary arrest. All patients who were not successfully resuscitated or who had expired within 24 h after admission were excluded for determination of the risk of pulmonary oedema and pneumonia. RESULTS: Class I patients did not develop pulmonary complications; neither pulmonary oedema nor pneumonia occurred in this group. In the remaining classes the incidence of pulmonary oedema was 72% and that of pneumonia, 14.7%. Stepwise logistic regression showed that pulmonary oedema was related to the type of water (seawater, ditch water, swimming pool) victims were submerged in and to the neurological state both at the time of rescue and on admission. The development of pneumonia was related to the use of mechanical ventilation (the risk was 52%). Pneumonia was not related to neurological state at the time of rescue or on admission, to body temperature on admission, to the prophylactic administration of antibiotics or to the use of corticosteroids. Mortality was high in class IV patients, but low in all other patients. Early mortality was 18.4% while late mortality was 5.6%. CONCLUSIONS: There is no need to hospitalise submersion victims when there are no signs or symptoms of aspiration upon arrival in the emergency room. All other patients should be admitted to an intensive care unit. The risk of pneumonia is high when mechanical ventilation is necessary. Mortality is high in patients with circulatory arrest on admission, but low in all other patients.

Predicting outcome in pediatric submersion victims.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To predict outcome in children after near-drowning. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. Vegetative state and death were classified as unfavorable outcomes, whereas all other outcomes were classified as favorable. Demographic, episode-related, clinical, laboratory, and treatment variables available at the time of admission were evaluated for their usefulness in predicting outcome. SETTING: Pediatric referral hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Children admitted after submersion injury in non-icy waters. RESULTS: The study cohort comprised 194 children (median age, 2.6 years; range, 5 months to 18 years); 131 were neurologically normal at the time of discharge, 10 had some degree of neurologic impairment, 15 were in a vegetative state at the time of discharge, and 38 died. We used a combination of partitioning and logistic regression to combine variables in a prediction rule that was always correct when unfavorable outcome was predicted. The final rule predicted favorable outcome for all children who were not comatose. Among comatose children, unfavorable outcome was predicted by a combination of absent pupillary light reflex, increased initial blood glucose concentration, and male sex. This rule had a specificity of 100%--children with favorable outcomes were always predicted to do well--and a sensitivity of 65%. Therefore the rule was overly optimistic for 35% of patients with unfavorable outcomes. CONCLUSION: Pediatric submersion victims can be assigned to high or low likelihoods of unfavorable outcome with the use of four variables: comatose state, lack of pupillary light reflex, sex, and initial blood glucose concentration. This prediction rule may be useful if it can be validated in another cohort.

Hospitalizations for near drowning in California: incidence and costs.

California hospital discharge data for 1991 were examined to describe persons hospitalized for near drownings (i.e., a submersion incident for which the victim was admitted to a hospital). Among residents with near-drowning injuries, there were 865 discharges, regardless of outcome (rate = 2.8/100,000); 785 persons survived the hospitalization, and 80 (9%) did not. Swimming pools were the most common submersion site (62%). Highest rates per 100,000 were found among males (3.6), Blacks (3.6), and children 1 through 5 years old (18.4). Charges for the initial hospitalization (excluding physicians' fees) amounted to $11.4 million. The state government's share of these charges was $5.4 million, with Medi-Cal expected to pay $4.1 million. Blacks, males, Medi-Cal recipients, and young children are most at risk and should be targeted for prevention programs.

Artificial surfactant administration in an animal model of near drowning.

OBJECTIVE: To study the use of exogenous surfactant in a rabbit fresh-water near-drowning model. METHODS: In a randomized, placebo-controlled experiment, 21 rabbits were anesthetized, paralyzed, and subjected to near drowning with 6 mL/kg of distilled water. Vital signs, arterial blood gases, and pulmonary compliance were measured at predetermined intervals. The animals were randomized into two groups: a normal O2 group that had their pO2 levels adjusted to 75-150 torr using supplemental O2 as needed, and a high O2 group ventilated with an FIO2 = 100%. Ventilator settings were further adjusted to normalize pH and pCO2 levels prior to instillation of distilled water. The two groups were further divided and 15 minutes after simulated near drowning, the animals were either treated with surfactant (5 mL/kg instilled endotracheally) or not treated. Data were analyzed by repeated-measures analysis of variance. RESULTS: Near drowning had no significant effect on heart rate or blood pressure. Acidosis was not changed by surfactant; hypoxia was worsened by surfactant: 158 +/- 54 torr before and 66 +/- 19 torr after administration (p < 0.01). Compliance did not change as a result of surfactant administration. Only the animals (n = 3) in the normal O2 plus surfactant group died during the 90-minute post-near-drowning period of the study. CONCLUSIONS: Surfactant administration (5 mL/kg) in this animal model of freshwater near drowning offers no benefit over simple ventilation. Assessment of the merit of smaller volumes of surfactant should be investigated because administration of this solution may represent a second pulmonary insult, given current volume recommendations.

Accidentes por inmersión: ahogamiento y casi-ahogamiento: presentación de 38 casos

Los accidentes por inmersión se presentan en más de 8.000 personas por año en los Estados Unidos. La verdadera incidencia del casi-ahogamiento todavía no se ha precisado, pero se supone que es dos a 10 veces mayor que el número real de ahogados que se públican. En nuestro medio la situación es más complicada ya que no existen estudios que definan la magnitud del problema. En el presente trabajo se revisaron las historias clínicas de 38 pacientes, con accidentes por inmersión en agua salada, manejados en el Hospital Universitario de Cartagena y en el Hospital Bocagrande durante los últimos dos años. Se trataba de 23 hombres (65 por ciento) y 15 mujeres (35 por ciento), con una edad promedio (x) de 18.5 años. El tiempo de inmersión fue, en promedio, de 18.1 (s=16.89) minutos. En 12 pacientes se practicaron maniobras de Reanimación Cardiopulmonar; en 9 fueron exitosas y la duración de tales maniobras fue de 26.6 (s=12.1) minutos. Al ingreso los signos vitales en promedio fueron: frecuencia cardíaca de 117 (s=14.3), frecuencia respiratoria de 31.5 (s=7.5), presión arterial media de 59.2 (s=9.6). El ionograma fue normal; con un sodio sérico de 139 (s=3.4) y Potasio de 3.9 (s=0.3). 10 pacientes ingresaron a la Unidad de Cuidado Intensivo y tuvieron una estancia en ella de 3.6 (s=1.3) días. De estos pacientes 6 requirieron Ventilación Mecánica durante 1.5 (0.5) días. Ningún paciente recibió corticoides y sólo 5 recibieron antibióticos, y en todos los casos se hicieron con la indicación de "profilaxis". No se presentaron infecciones en los pacientes que no recibieron antibióticos. De la presente revisión podemos resumir que: 1: No hay justificación para el uso de esteroides o antibióticos profilácticos en este tipo de pacientes. 2. Las alteraciones electrolíticas no son tan frecuentes ni severas como se consideraba. 3. Si bien el tiempo de inmersión fue prolongado, la eficacia y rapidez de la reanimación y la respuesta neurológica inicial son los mejores parámetros para establecer pronóstico en casiahogamiento. " La desición de reanimar un paciente con accidente de inmersión es ética más que médica y si existe la posibilidad de salvar una vida, el número de fracasos es una situación específica no debe ser tenido en cuenta". 4. Las medidas preventivas son primordiales para reducir la morbimortalidad derivada de los accidentes por inmersión.

[Submersion in children; the role of hypothermia and development of adult respiratory distress syndrome]. / Submersie bij kinderen; rol van hypothermie en ontstaan van 'adult respiratory distress'-syndroom.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the occurrence of the adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and of hypothermia as a predictor of outcome in cases of submersion injury in children. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis. PATIENTS: All drowning cases admitted to the Intensive Care Unit of the Wilhelmina Children's Hospital in Utrecht between January 1986 and January 1993. RESULTS: There were 45 patients, 29 boys and 16 girls, aged 0-13 years. Hypothermia was related to the duration of submersion and did not correlate with a good outcome. Asystole on arrival at the hospital was associated with demise in all but one patient, who was left with severe neurological impairment. ARDS occurred in 27/45 patients (60%), all within 6 h following admission. Of the 45 patients treated, 11 died. Of the 34 survivors, 7 were discharged from the Intensive Care Unit with neurological sequelae (2 with mild, 5 with serious sequelae). CONCLUSION: In our patients with drowning accidents, hypothermia did not appear to provide any protective effect. ARDS, if it occurred, became evident within 6 h after admission.

Near drowning: is emergency department cardiopulmonary resuscitation or intensive care unit cerebral resuscitation indicated?

OBJECTIVES: a) To report the neurologic outcome of a series of near-drowning victims treated with supportive management without aggressive cerebral resuscitation; and b) to identify patient characteristics that indicate prognosis and guide therapy at the scene, the Emergency Department, and in the intensive care unit (ICU). DESIGN: Retrospective review of all near-drowning patients requiring admission to the ICU over a 6-yr period (1/1/82 to 12/31/88). Hospital records were examined for the circumstances of submersion and rescue, patient condition on arrival in the Emergency Department and ICU, treatments, hospital course, and ultimate outcome. SETTING: Emergency departments of the referring hospital and ICU of Children's Hospital. PATIENTS: Forty-four pediatric submersion victims were treated with therapy limited to the support of vital functions. Three patients who met cold-water drowning criteria were excluded from the analysis for predictors of neurologic outcome. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: In our warm-water near-drowning patients, 56% survived neurologically intact, 32% survived in a persistent vegetative state, and the remaining 32% died. Unreactive pupils in the Emergency Department and a Glasgow Coma Score of < or = 5 on arrival to the ICU were the best independent predictors of poor neurologic outcome (odds ratio and 95% confidence intervals 374 [17 to 16,000] and 51 [5 to 2,200], respectively). However, no predictor was absolute and two nonhypothermic patients who arrived to the Emergency Department without vital signs, requiring cardiopulmonary resuscitation and cardiotonic medications, had full neurologic recovery. CONCLUSIONS: Our results cast further doubt on the utility of aggressive forms of cerebral monitoring and resuscitation and emphasize the need for initial full resuscitation in the Emergency Department.

Relationship of cross-brain oxygen content difference, cerebral blood flow, and metabolic rate to neurologic outcome after near-drowning.

We evaluated the relationship of global cerebral blood flow, cross-brain oxygen content difference, cerebral metabolic rate for oxygen, intracranial pressure, and cerebral perfusion pressure to functional neurologic outcome in 12 comatose children on 2 consecutive days after near-drowning. Five children survived with functional neurologic outcome; five died and two survived with severe neurologic damage. Children who survived with functional neurologic outcome had a significantly higher cross-brain oxygen content difference (7.89 +/- 2.62 vs 3.91 +/- 1.59 ml/dl; p = 0.028) at 24 hours and a higher cerebral metabolic rate for oxygen 48 hours after admission (3.19 +/- 2.86 vs 0.96 +/- 0.45 ml/100 gm per minute; p = 0.030) compared with those who died or survived in a damaged state. There were no significant differences in global cerebral blood flow, intracranial pressure, and cerebral perfusion pressure between groups at either 24 or 48 hours. Our preliminary data suggest that a higher cross-brain content difference value is an important early variable associated with functional neurologic recovery after near-drowning. However, a single cross-brain oxygen content difference value must be interpreted with caution because considerable variability may occur among patient groups.

Submersion injuries in children younger than 5 years in urban Utah.

Submersion injuries of children younger than 5 years in 4 urban Utah counties from 1984 through 1988 were studied retrospectively to identify associated risk factors. Infants younger than 1 year had the highest rates of both submersion injuries and deaths. The incidence of bathtub drownings was 2 to 3 times higher than reported national rates. All bathtub drownings occurred while the victim was bathing with a young sibling (10 months to 7 years of age) without adult supervision. All drownings in pools and moving bodies of water (rivers, irrigation ditches) resulted from unintentional falls into the water rather than from swimming and wading activities. Drowning prevention strategies should focus on educating parents about the risk of young children bathing with siblings in the absence of adult supervision and fencing regulations for pools and open bodies of moving water.

Outcome in children who nearly drown: a British Isles study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the outcome in nearly drowned children in the British Isles and identify factors that might predict a poor prognosis. DESIGN: Study of drowned and of nearly drowned children aged less than or equal to 14. Information on nearly drowned children admitted to hospital obtained from consultant paediatricians returning monthly notification cards through the British Paediatric Surveillance Unit. Information on drowned children obtained from Office of Population Censuses and Surveys and other national epidemiological offices. SETTING: British Isles, 1988 and 1989. SUBJECTS: 330 children who had confirmed submersion incidents. 142 died before admission to hospital and 188 children were admitted after nearly drowning. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Death, full recovery, or degree of handicap after near drowning and signs on admission to hospital. RESULTS: All of the children who were conscious on admission fully recovered. Of the 64 children unconscious on admission, 31 had normally reactive pupils and all but three (all of whom had severe preexisting neurological disease) recovered fully. Of the 33 children with fixed dilated pupils on admission, 10 fully recovered, 13 died, and 10 had severe neurological deficit. Spontaneous respiratory effect on admission was associated with normal survival. Pupils that remained dilated six hours after admission and fits continuing 24 hours after admission predicted a poor outcome. CONCLUSION: Children can survive normally after near drowning in the British Isles, particularly if they have been hypothermic. Resuscitation should not be abandoned in nearly drowned children until they have been rewarmed.

Submersion in The Netherlands: prognostic indicators and results of resuscitation.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: To analyze prognostic indicators and the outcome of resuscitation in submersion victims (drowning and near drowning). DESIGN: Retrospective study. SETTING: Intensive and Respiratory Care Unit. Between January 1, 1979, and December 31, 1985, 87 submersion victims were admitted. The files of 83 victims were available for statistical analysis. There were 66 male victims and 17 female victims; the average age was 31.4 +/- 25.8 years. There were ten salt water and 73 fresh water submersions. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Predictors for better survival potentials were a young age, submersion of less than ten minutes, no signs of aspiration, and a central body temperature of less than 35 C at admission. We did not detect factors that accelerated a decrease in core body temperature at admission and assume that lethal hypoxia had preceded protective hypothermia in our submersion victims. The Orlowski score had a predictive value but at the same time we found nonindependent indicators in this score. Neurologic outcome in our patients, who were not treated according to a brain protection protocol, was not worse than the outcome published by authors who have used such a protocol. Thirty-three percent of the victims with a cardioventilatory arrest (15) and all victims with a ventilatory arrest (11) survived resuscitation and were discharged. Five nonarrest victims died due to late complications. CONCLUSION: This study shows that no indicator at the rescue site and in the hospital is absolutely reliable with respect to death or survival.